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Ecology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

ecology come from the word

A

Oikos- house, place to live

Ernst Haeckel 1869

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2
Q

Ecology interval/range

A

Organsims-Earth (biosphere)

Behavioural ecology– population ecology– community ecology– deep ecology

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3
Q

Subsection of ecological genetics

A

genetic variability
natural selection
evolution

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4
Q

ecological genetics

A

study of genetic/phenotypic variability in natural populations, relationship to ecological processes

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5
Q

If all individuals in a population are homozygous

A

monomorphic

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6
Q

If any individual in a population has a heterozygous locus

A

polymorphic

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7
Q

Average percent of loci in a population that are polymorphic

A

5-15%

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8
Q

genes/individual

A

~20,000

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9
Q

Genetic variability

A

percentage of heterozygous loci : population size

increased genetic variability with increased population size

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10
Q

Natural selection in moth species

A

evolved to mostly black because lichens were less common on trees after industrial revolution

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11
Q

Natural selection of sea snails living on kelp

A

Yellow snails have advantage over predator below kelp
brown has advantage over predator above kelp
due to light source

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12
Q

evolution of spirit bears

A

white bears have advantage over darker coloured bears when fishing

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13
Q

zygosity in populations <100

A

nearly monomorphic

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14
Q

monomorphic populations

A

increases susceptibility to disease

decrease adaptability to environmental change

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15
Q

Initial genetic variation vs. generations

A

N = 20, genetic variation = 0 after 200 generations
N=100, variation down to 0.2 ~300 generations
N=1000 small decrease in variation over 500 generations

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16
Q

reduced number of individuals in population

A

increased inbreeding– increased homozygosity– increased juvenile mortality

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17
Q

MVP

A

minimum viable population

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18
Q

minimum viable population

A

smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without facing extinction
90% of genetic variability after 200 years

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19
Q

MVA

A

minimum viable area

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20
Q

minimum viable area

A

minimum land area required to maintain genetic variability after 200 years

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21
Q

MVP then and now

A

used to think ~500 was viable

now know it must be ~2500-4000

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22
Q

most common park size

A

~20-50km^2

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23
Q

immigration in regards to genetic variability

A

even a small amount of migration per generation allows persistence of genetic variability

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24
Q

no immigrants per generation

A

<60% genetic variability left after 100 generations

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25
Q

1 immigrant per generation

A

~90% genetic variability left after 100 generations

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26
Q

natural selection 2.0

A

non-random and differential reproduction of genotypes resulting in preservation of favourable variants

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27
Q

adaptation

A

physiological, morphological, or behavioural modification that enhances survival and reproductive success of an organism

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28
Q

evolution

A

serial change over time

descent with modification

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29
Q

Anagenesis

A

gradual change over time
changing adaptations over time
does not lead to species diversity

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30
Q

Cladogenesis

A

branching of lineages and formation of new species

usually occurs with geographical or genetic isolation

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31
Q

anagenesis graph geological time vs. trait condition

A

relatively straight line

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32
Q

cladogenesis graph of geological time vs. trait condition

A

branching tree

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33
Q

when life began on earth

A

first life developed on earth ~3billion years ago

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34
Q

total number of species on earth

A

8-100 million

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35
Q

Subsections of behavioural ecology

A 
optimal foraging
territoriality
sex and mating systems
group living
life histories
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36
Q

first hard shelled organisms

A

542mya explosion of diversity

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37
Q

mass extinction

A

250mya

~94% of life extinct

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38
Q

diversification of mammals and birds

A

65mya

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39
Q

Foraging decisions

A

large/small, soft/hard, plant/animal, sweet/sour, uncommon/common, closer/more quality, opportunistic?

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40
Q

OFT

A

optimal foraging theory

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41
Q

optimal foraging theory

A

rules in optimizing choice of food/prey

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42
Q

3 subsets of OFT

A

preference for food with greatest net energy gain
feed more selectively when food is abundant
low quality food only when profitable food is scarce

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43
Q

optimal foraging, net energy gain

A

catching difficulty, amount of prey that can be consumed

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44
Q

Pied-wagtail (bird) foraging strategies

A

beetle size most eaten- not biggest or most common
biggest beetles take longer to eat
7mm beetle provides most calories/handling time

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45
Q

intrinsic quality of food

A

amino acids, fatty acids, salts, vitamins, trace elements

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46
Q

importance of sodium

A

primary extracellular ion, major role in body fluid volume, acid-base balance, tissue pH, muscle function, nerve synapse

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47
Q

sodium defficiencies

A

on average animals are sodium deficient
plants do not contain sodium
why animals are given salt licks
aquatic plants are rich in sodium

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48
Q

primary reason for animals to move to coastal regions

A

compensation for sodium deficiency

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49
Q

aquatic plant properties

A

low calories
high Na levels
high moisture (bulk)

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50
Q

Terrestrial plant properties

A

High calories
Low Na levels
low moisture

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51
Q

Aquatic vs. terrestrial plants in moose diet

A

low terrestrial would require high aquatic intake for energy
stomach not large enough for high aquatic intake
high terrestrial not enough energy or sodium
small range for optimal diet

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52
Q

bison foraging strategy

A

migrate to salt lakes

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53
Q

Patch foraging time

A

food occurs in a patchy distribution and in patches of different size

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54
Q

optimizing foraging time among patches

A

concentrate foraging activity in most productive patches
ignore patches of low productivity
stay with patch until profitability falls to level equal to average for all foraging patches combined

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55
Q

as time spent in foraging patch increases

A

energy obtained ‘flattens out’

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56
Q

leave foraging patch when

A

probability is that the next patch will be more dense

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57
Q

time to spend in foraging patch graph

A

cumulative net food gain vs. time spent in patch

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58
Q

if it takes a long time to obtain food

A

animals spend more time on that food

birds that open containers easily didn’t stay long

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59
Q

foraging time vs. predation risk graph

A

state of hunger dictates willingness to risk predation
starving- straight line, foraging activity is independent of predation risk
very hungry- sloped line, foraging activity decreases linearly with increased predation
slightly hungry- no foraging activity with high predation

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60
Q

Home range

A

area over which an animal travels in search of food/mates/resources and which is not defended
present in majority of animal species

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61
Q

territoriality

A

defines of an area and active exclusion of resource use by others through display, advertisement or defense

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62
Q

Territoriality is common in

A

predators (african lion, cheetah, hyaena, bear, eagle, hawk, owl)
birds during nesting
fish during reproduction
social insects (ants, bees, wasp, dragonfly)

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63
Q

Influences on size of territory

A

body size, aggressive behaviour, habitat quality, population density, competition with others, ability to share resources

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64
Q

black-capped chickadee territoriality

A

male sings to mark territory

same species avoid each others territory, other species do not (intraspecific competition)

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65
Q

Great Tit territoriality experiment

A

Remove individual 3 to see if there would be a change in territories, boundaries expanded, new arrivals came
was 3 dominant to the others? defended territory more..

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66
Q

larger territory =

A

more food, shelter, reproduction
harder to defend
want largest area with lowest cost

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67
Q

determining optimal territory size from benefit/cost vs. territory size graph

A

optimal size is where there is the largest slope on benefit curve

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68
Q

maximum territory size from benefit/cost vs. territory size graph

A

where benefit curve flattens out

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69
Q

changes in optimal territory size

A

ex. predator moves into area

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70
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

offspring genetically identical to parent
common in bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants
occasional in vertebrates
harder for species to persist

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71
Q

predictor of asexual reproduction

A

small, short lifespan animals

consistent environment

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72
Q

asexual species using sexual reproduction at particular stages of life

A

times of stress

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73
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

majority of species

genotype different from mother and father

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74
Q

in changing environment/niche, new genotypes may have

A

higher reproductive output than either parental genotype

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75
Q

categories of sexual reproduction

A

dioecious

monoecious

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76
Q

dioecious

A

‘two houses’ ‘two sexes’
male/female organs on separate individuals
~equal sex ratio
majority of species

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77
Q

monoecious

A

‘one house’
m/f organs on same individual
bisexual or hermaphrodite

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78
Q

types of hermaphrodites

A

simultaneous hermaphrodite

sequential hermaphrodite

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79
Q

simultaneous hermaphrodite

A

both sets of reproductive organs at same time
common in plants/invertebrates
can’t mate with self

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80
Q

sequential hermaphrodites

A

m/f reproductive parts at different times

common in coral reef fish

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81
Q

ontogeny

A

origination and development of an organism, usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to the organism’s mature form

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82
Q

example of simultaneous hermaphrodites

A

slugs, worms

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83
Q

example of sequential hermaphrodite

A

Wrasse
small ones- genderless
medium- female (beta position)
large- male (alpha position)

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84
Q

simultaneous/sequential hermaphrodites don’t have

A

sex determining chromosomes

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85
Q

Mating structures

A

Panmixis
Polygamy
Monogamy

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86
Q

Panmixis

A

unrestricted random mating
all individuals equally potential partners
sexes look alike (monomorphic)
eggs and sperm dropped all over the place

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87
Q

panmixis examples

A

some marine invertebrates

marine schooling fish

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88
Q

Polygamy

A

many marriages, multiple partners
widespread
sexes look different (dimorphic)
males often larger/more elaborate

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89
Q

types of polygamy

A

Polygyny

Polyandry

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90
Q

polygyny

A

female defense polygyny- individual males defend groups of females
resource defense polygyny- individual males defend resources which female seek out

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91
Q

polygyny examples

A

fish, amphibians, reptiles, songbirds, mammals

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92
Q

female defense polygyny examples

A

deer, primates

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93
Q

resource defense polygyny examples

A

fish, songbirds

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94
Q

polyandry

A

many males, single/few females
males take on ‘mother’ roles- incubate eggs, sexually inactive
sexual genes are down regulated
females compete for males and defend resources

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95
Q

polyandry example

A

shorebirds

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96
Q

monogamy

A

serial or lifetime
one marriage, high fidelity to single partner
care for young for a long time, often predators
bi-parental care required to raise young (or they die)
sexes usually look similar (monomorphic)

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97
Q

monogamy examples

A

carrion beetle, most seabirds, swans, hawks, beavers, weasels, wolves

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98
Q

new data on genetic fingerprinting indicate offspring of monogamous couples

A 
are often sired by more than one father
socially monogamous (cheating)
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99
Q

extra pair copulations (EPC)

A

copulation with a male other than the bonded male, gives birth to offspring whose father is not the bonded male

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100
Q

fitness of offspring is a function of

A

who female mates with (genetic makeup)

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101
Q

females choosier than males in mate choice

A

fitness cost is greater than in males (limited eggs 400 vs. unlimited sperm 200 million per ejaculate)

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102
Q

sexual selection

A

mate choice- tendency for individual to be selective in whom they choose to mate with

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103
Q

male fitness increased by

A

maximizing number of fertilized eggs (increased number of females)

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104
Q

female fitness is increased by

A

maximizing genetic quality and genetic variability of their offspring

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105
Q

female mate choice criteria

A 
nuptial gift 
dominant/strong male preference
handicapped male hypothesis 
parasite free male hypothesis
symmetric male hypothesis
display evaluation
inbreeding avoidance
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106
Q

nuptial gift

A

males provide gift to female to solicit matings

females use resource characteristics to determine quality of male

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107
Q

examples of nuptial gift

A

hanging fly
thynnine wasp
song birds

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108
Q

hanging fly

A 
larger prey (gift) = more sperm transferred (longer copulation)
sperm is stored in female, she chooses which to use later
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109
Q

Thynnine wasp

A

female doesn’t fly, releases scent to winged males

males ability to carry female to multiple flowers increases probability of male mating

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110
Q

songbirds (nuptial gift)

A

gift to female is safe territory for foraging/breeding

male evaluated based on length and complexity of song- correlated with territory size (physically demanding)

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111
Q

examples of Dominant/strong male in sexual selection

A

ram
elephant seal
damselfly/dragonfly

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112
Q

damselflys dominant sexual selection acts

A

males engage in aerial combat over pond
winners do the mating
female increases genetic quality of offspring by mating with winner

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113
Q

handicapped male hypothesis

A

expression of costly elaborate display by males provide female the greatest information on genetic quality of male
“honest signal” of fitness, low possibility of cheating
male survives despite handicap

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114
Q

example of handicapped male hypothesis

A

peacock

widowbird

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115
Q

widowbird handicap

A

male tail is longer than body, reduces flight, feeding ability, predator evasion

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116
Q

elephant seal dominant sexual selection act

A

fight for female attraction

only the winner mates with females for the year

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117
Q

results of widowbird study (handicapped male hypothesis)

A

lengthened tail of bird- was much more successful reproductively

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118
Q

parasite free male hypothesis

A

differing susceptibility to disease can lead to mortality in young, males without parasite = better immunological genes- improved physiological ability, immunocompetence heritable

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119
Q

bright displays- parasite free male hypothesis

A

bright displays are physiologically costly to produce
parasitized birds can’t produce as bright of colours
if females choose these males- provide offspring with genes more resistant to disease

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120
Q

proof parasitized birds can’t produce as bright of colours?

A

removal of lice– birds moult— new coat is brighter

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121
Q

symmetric male hypothesis

A

bilateral species

an excellent genotype can correct asymmetries during development

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122
Q

developmental instability

A

asymmetries in structure

minor errors in embryological development and growth

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123
Q

can lead to asymmetry

A

stress, pollutants, parasitism, homozygosity, poor genotype

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124
Q

symmetric male hypothesis bird study

A

symmetry was altered in male birds tail feathers

female switches her favourite to most symmetric male

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125
Q

symmetric male hypothesis is commonly observed in

A

insects, fish, birds, mammals

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126
Q

symmetry can be evaluated by

A

sight and sound

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127
Q

example of symmetry evaluation by sound

A

crickets having symmetric (monotone) frequency wing harps- indictor of body symmetry

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128
Q

fluctuating asymmetry

A

random deviation from perfect bilateral symmetry in otherwise symmetrical morphological traits, originates from developmental errors during ontogeny

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129
Q

fluctuating asymmetry reflects

A

inability of a genotype to buffer itself effectively against environmental perturbations

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130
Q

symmetric male hypothesis fish study

A

females have significant preferences for fish with symmetric vertical bars

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131
Q

facial asymmetry in rhesus macaques

A

honest indicator of health

used in mate choice situations

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132
Q

display evaluation

A

females evaluate quality, complexity, coordination of display (dances, songs)

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133
Q

inbreeding avoidance

A

all animal/plant species in the wild have mechanisms to avoid inbreeding

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134
Q

animal species can detect genetic kinship based on

A

pheromones

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135
Q

MHC

A

major histocompatibility complex

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136
Q

what is MHC

A

~30 genes coding for proteins in cell membranes essential for immune system, 2 different proteins at each gene, each gene multiple alleles, each individual unique, MHC molecules bind to specific receptors and have distinct odours

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137
Q

females prefer what in regards to MHC

A

males with the most dissimilar odour (genotype) to themselves

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138
Q

how birth control affects females and MHC

A

females are attracted to male similar to self– birth control mimics pregnancy– want family close

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139
Q

MHC based mating preference may be affected by

A

genetic background, sex, early life experience

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140
Q

inbreeding is potentially problematic in all animal species. the major ecological cost of inbreeding is

A

reduced capacity to cope with environmental changes

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141
Q

increased homozygosity is not an ecological cost

A

it is a genetic cost

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142
Q

advantages of group living

A 
increased food search efficiency
increased capture efficiency of large prey
increased detection of predators
increased defense against predators
selfish herd theory
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143
Q

examples of increased food search efficiency in group living

A

seed detection by songbirds

fish detection in gulls- repeatedly catching fish signals a good feeding area

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144
Q

examples of increased capture efficiency in group living

A

wolves, lions

african hunting dogs- pack 20 catch ~80,000 kJ/dog/day, threshold number before a large difference is seen

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145
Q

increased detection of predators in group living

A

‘many eyes’ theory- Hawks have significantly lower attack successes with large number of pigeons present.
1-10 pigeons = 60-80% success
>50 pigeons = ~10% success

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146
Q

increased defense against predators

A

mobbing- ex. small birds can mob owls

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147
Q

selfish herd theory

A

dilution effect- schooling/herding/flocking- if there is an attack on a group it is less likely the attacker will get you

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148
Q

examples of species that exploit selfish herd theory

A

wildebeest, pronghorn, herring, flamingos

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149
Q

evolution of selfish herd theory

A

belted kingfisher in a tree above a lake.. if fish are individual and he has one is his sights the probability that he is looking at that one is 1, if that fish joins a group the probability that he the one being spotted is decreased..

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150
Q

Disadvantages of group living

A

increased transmission of parasites
shared resources and resource depletion
conflicts/stress

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151
Q

yellow-eyed junco group living

A

flock size 1 = lots of predator scanning, decent amount of feeding, no fighting
flock 3-4 = little predator scan, little fights, lots of feeding
flock 6-7 = slightly more predator scan, more fighting, a little less feeding

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152
Q

results of yellow-eyed junco study

A

if groups become too large fighting will take up valuable feeding time

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153
Q

reproductive effort

A

amount of total allocations that an individual makes for reproduction

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154
Q

categories of reproductive effort

A

r-selected

k-seleceted

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155
Q

r-selected

A

high # offspring
high population growth potential
boom/bust cycles
usually short lived

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156
Q

k-selected

A

low # offspring
low population growth potential
stable populations
usually long lived

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157
Q

categories of reproductive effort are

A 
relational categories (rather than absolute) 
species A is k-selected compared with species B
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158
Q

subcategories of Life History

A 
categories of reproductive effort
frequency of reproduction
occurrence of parental care
clutch size and litter size in k-selected species
age of first reproduction
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159
Q

frequency or reproduction

A

semelparous

iteroparous

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160
Q

semelparous

A

single reproduction, breed once and then die

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161
Q

iteroparous

A

repeated reproduction (usually yearly)

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162
Q

semelparous examples

A

most insects, octopus, salmon

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163
Q

iteroparous examples

A

plants, snails, most fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

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164
Q

occurrence of parental care

A

absence/presence

amount

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165
Q

parental care absent in

A

most invertebrate taxa
most fish
most amphibians
most reptiles

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166
Q

parental care common in

A 
social insects
small fish
dinosaurs
birds
all mammals
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167
Q

another name for semalparous

A

‘big bang reproduction’

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168
Q

precoccial

A

offspring are born without needing care

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169
Q

example of precoccial organisms

A

caribou babies can run as fast as adults within hours of life
semipalmated plover born with adult size legs

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170
Q

occurrence of parental care - amount needed

A

absent
precoccial
altricial

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171
Q

altricial

A

offspring are born helpless and require extensive postnatal care

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172
Q

example of altricial young

A

social insects, some fish, amphibians, most birds, most mammals

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173
Q

clutch size and litter size in k-selected bird species

A

birds can only lay one egg a day

all bird species lay fewer eggs in the nest than they are capable of doing

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174
Q

David Lack (1948) proposed that

A

clutch size represents the maximum number of young parents can successfully raise

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175
Q

clutch size tends to increase with

A

geographical latitude

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176
Q

why more eggs with latitude

A

more food, less competition, easier to care for young

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177
Q

test of Lacks hypothesis, collared flycatcher

A

can lay 8, normal clutch 4
chicks- reduced survival first year, reduced egg production as adults
parents- reduced winter survival, reduced egg production next year

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178
Q

test of Lacks hypothesis, Canada goose

A

can lay 12, normal clutch 4, added 1
chick- survival similar
parents- delayed molt, delayed migration, reduced weight next year, female bred later next year

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179
Q

results of Lacks hypothesis

A

clutch size corresponds to maximum number of offspring parents can raise without a net reduction in future reproductive effort

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180
Q

difference in collared flycatcher, canada goose study

A

collared flycatcher feed young 50 times a day

canada goose does not feed young

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181
Q

age of first reproduction

A

generation time- major variation

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182
Q

examples of variation in generation time

A

fish: guppies 3wks, sharks 30yrs
birds: songbirds 6mnths, albatross 6-10 yrs
mammals: mice 3wks, elephant, whale, human 13yrs

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183
Q

fecundity

A

number of eggs

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184
Q

in most plants and ectothermic animals fecundity is

A

positively related to size

lay eggs at older/larger stage = more eggs

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185
Q

lay 2 eggs and die at 12 months of age, or lay 10 eggs at 48mnths and die, which is a better strategy?

A

work out by adding up population size over months

eventually 2 eggs at 12 months has a greater impact

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186
Q

how many species breed within first year of life

A

98%

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187
Q

useful to produce early in life?

A

if higher mortality rate in getting to the older production age (does probability of survival decrease)

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188
Q

mule deer in BC

A

adult size- 3yrs
can reproduce at 2yrs- body growth reduced, increased winter mortality from predators
without predators most reproduce at 2 yrs

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189
Q

r-selection life history attributes

A

development- rapid
reproductive rate/age/type- high, early, semelparous
body size- small
life length - short
competitive ability- weak
survivorship- high mortality of young
population size- usually well below carrying capacity

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190
Q

k-selection life history attributes

A

development- slow
reproductive rate/age/type- low, late, otero parous
body size- large
life length - long
competitive ability- strong
survivorship- low mortality of young
population size- usually at or near carrying capacity

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191
Q

essential features of scientific explanation

A

testability

falsifiability

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192
Q

scientific experiments

A

evaluate hypotheses (do not prove)

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193
Q

population ecology

A

dispersion, movement, estimating population size, life tables, mortality and survivorship curves, population growth and population regulation

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194
Q

dispersion types

A

regular/hyperdispersion
random
aggregated/clumped

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195
Q

regular dispersion

A

equidistant

fish school, seabirds

196
Q

random dispersion

A

individuals distributed without respect to others

grazing wildebeest, beach clams, forest spiders

197
Q

aggregated dispersion

A

most common

2 types

198
Q

types of aggregated dispersion

A

coarse grained
fine grained
plants (due to trace minerals left by glacial till)

199
Q

coarse grained aggregated dispersion

A

clumps separated by large areas

200
Q

fine grained aggregated dispersion

A

clumps separated by short distances

201
Q

dispersion

A

how individuals are distributed in habitat

structured by where resources are

202
Q

dispersion allows

A

spread/mixing of genetic information

203
Q

reasons for clumped distribution - plants

A

local difference in microhabitat- soil moisture, nutrients, sunlight

204
Q

reasons for clumped distribution- animals

A

resources are clumped

behaviour which facilitates grouping

205
Q

animal behaviours that facilitate grouping (clumped distribution)

A

social context, family groups, predator defense, shelter

206
Q

types of individual movement

A

dispersal

migration

207
Q

dispersal

A

movement of individual away from place of birth

leads to geneflow

208
Q

migration

A

mass directional movement of large number of individuals from one location to next

209
Q

migration examples

A

salmon, whales, wildebeest, seabirds, songbirds, monarch butterfly

210
Q

grey whales migrate south in the fall

A

calves have high thermoregulation needs, born in Baja where water is warmer so they can store energy

211
Q

Warbler migration

A

south in winter for food (no insects in north in winter)

north in spring- easier to raise children in north (less competition)

212
Q

monarch butterfly migration

A

migration is multi generational (4 generations for round trip)
adults mate and leave mt.s in mexico in feb, lay eggs on milkweed, die, eggs hatch feed on milkweed, adults migrate north

213
Q

monarch butterfly eggs hatch in

A

4 days

214
Q

monarch pupation to chrysalis

A

10 days

215
Q

monarch generations 1-3

A

adult 2-6 week migration

216
Q

monarch generation 4

A

south migration, adult 6-8 months

217
Q

why milkweed

A

cardiac glycoside, caterpillar puts toxin in its skin

218
Q

density

A

individuals per unit area/volume

219
Q

estimating absolute density

A

total counts (photographic)
quadrat sampling
mark, release, recapture estimates

220
Q

Peterson/Lincoln index for mark, release, recapture

A

N = Mn / m

221
Q

variable in Peterson/Lincoln index

A

N- population size
M- number of marked individuals
n- number of individuals in sample
m- number of marked individuals in sample

222
Q

confidence intervals in mark recapture

A

sampling must be repeated to obtain decent confidence interval

223
Q

problems with mark recapture

A

50% of released steelheads die of stress
birds target butterflies marked on wings
polar bears marked with paint couldn’t capture prey

224
Q

assumptions for reliable population estimates in mark recapture

A

population is largely constant over duration of studies
marked individuals have same chance of getting caught
marked individuals do not incur greater mortality
marks are not lost

225
Q

population is largely constant over duration of mark recapture studies

A

no immigration, emigration, births, deaths

only possible in short time frame

226
Q

marked individuals have same chance of getting caught

A

assumption of equal catchability

227
Q

marked individuals do not incur greater mortality

A

stress-related mortality

mark-associated mortality

228
Q

problems with flipper bands on penguins

A

banded birds had 16% lower survival, 39% fewer chicks

229
Q

non-invasive methods of evaluating density

A

genotyping / genetic fingerprinting

hair, feathers, faeces, scales, identify individual genotypes

230
Q

Estimating future population

A

N_t+1 = N_t + B + I - D - E

231
Q

variables of future population equation

A 
N_t+1 - individuals in pop. at t+1 year or generation
N_t - individuals in pop at time t
B- births
D- deaths
I- immigration
E- emmigration
232
Q

B - births

A

natality, number of individuals produced

fecundity / fertility

233
Q

fecundity

A

ecological concept, number of offspring produced

234
Q

fertility

A

physiological concept, females ability to produce offspring per unit period of time

235
Q

PPP

A

primary population parameters

B D I E

236
Q

demography

A

statistical study of human populations

237
Q

life tables useful for

A

estimating mortality rate, survival rates, survivorship curves, average life expectance

238
Q

types of life tables

A

age specific

time specific

239
Q

cohort analysis

A 
age-specific- group of individuals of same age class
follow specific cohort from birth to death
most useful on short lived species
240
Q

cohort

A

group of animals of same species, identified by common characteristic, studied over time as part of scientific/medical investigation

241
Q

nestling

A

eggs that hatch

242
Q

fledglings

A

birds that can fly from nest

243
Q

in order to construct age specific life table

A

follow cohort from eggs to adults for 1 generation

244
Q

blue tit cohort

A

50 eggs followed, x eggs lost, y nestlings, x nestlings die, y fledglings, x fledglings die, y new adults, x new adults die, y adults left

245
Q

survivorship calculated

A

relative to original cohort

3 new adults left, out of 50 eggs = 6% survivorship

246
Q

mortality calculated

A

relative to each stage

3 new adults, 30 fledglings = 1 - (3/30) = 90%

247
Q

time-specific life table

A 
age structure at single point in time
long lived, large animals
snapshot in time
'static life table'
requires age distribution of a population
248
Q

determining age for time specific life table

A

growth rings- mussels/clams/trees/fish scales
cross section of tooth- large animals
horn growth- mt sheep

249
Q

survivorship in time specific life table

A

I_x = N_tx / N_t

number entering age class / total count

250
Q

mortality

A 
1000q_x = ( N_tx - N_tx+1 ) / N_tx
number entering age class x, minus number in age class x+1 divided by number entering age class x
251
Q

life expectancy

A

e_x - expected number of additional years of life remaining at any specific age

252
Q

lowest mortality rates

A

intermediate age- healthiest, predators attack old and young

253
Q

more information in

A

mortality rate curve than survivorship curve

254
Q

Idealized survivorship curves

A

Type I
Type II
Type III

255
Q

survivorship curve type I

A

k-strategists, many mammals, number of survivors relatively constant till later age

256
Q

survivorship curve type II

A

many birds, small mammals, lizards, turtles, linear with negative slope, probability of survivorship is same each successive year

257
Q

survivorship curve type III

A

many invertebrates, fish, amphibians, plants, r-stratigists, why they lay so many eggs, largely decreasing survivorship at early age

258
Q

dominant cause of survivorship curve shape

A

predation

259
Q

atual survivorship curves

A

are ~same shape, lower (in survivors) than idealized curves

260
Q

population growth

A

occurs when births (natality) and immigration exceed mortality and emigration

261
Q

ASFR

A

age specific fecundity rate

262
Q

ASFR =

A

average number of male and female offspring produced per female for each class

263
Q

TFR

A

total fertility rate

average number of male and female offspring produced per female over her lifetime

264
Q

TFR =

A

ASFR x number of years in age class (range)

265
Q

critical information for population growth

A

sex ratio- life tables often calculated only for females

266
Q

importance of sex ratio

A

A=10 reproductive adults, B=100
A produces 9X more offspring than B?
A= 1 male, 9 females
B= 99males, 1 female

267
Q

NRR

A

net reproductive rate

268
Q

NRR =

A

Ro = ∑ Ixmx

269
Q

Ixmx

A

survivorship of reproductive females in any age group * number of daughters produced for each age class of female

270
Q

Ro

A

number of breeding daughters that will be produced by each breeding female in the population per generation

271
Q

Ro < 1

A

population is decreasing

each female produces ~<1 breeding daughter by end of reproductive period

272
Q

Ro = 1

A

population is stationary

273
Q

Ro > 1

A

population is increasing

each female produces ~>1 breeding daughter by end of reproductive period

274
Q

if Ro = 1.33

A

population of 100 females will grow to 133 females per generation

275
Q

population growth without restraint

A

geometric growth

276
Q

if Ro is unknown

A

use lambda- geometric rate of increase, finite multiplication rate, finite rate of increase

277
Q

lambda =

A

N_t+1 / N_t

278
Q

estimate geometric growth of population in to future

A

N_t = N_o * lambda^t
useful for non overlapping (discrete) generations
semelparous species

279
Q

population growth of iteroparous species

A 
dN/dt = rN
dN = rate of change in numbers
dt = rate of change in time
dN/dt = rate of population increase
r = per capita rate of population growth (intrinsic rate of natural increase)
N = population size
280
Q

r ??

A

b - d
number of births/thousand yrs
number of deaths/thousand yrs

281
Q

alternative estimation of r

A

r ~ ln Ro / Tc

Tc = generation time, mean time elapsing between birth and first reproduction

282
Q

If r < 0

A

population declines

283
Q

If r = 0

A

population is stable

284
Q

if r > 0

A

population increases

285
Q

to determine N at some point in future, for population with overlapping generations

A

N_t = No * e ^ rt

286
Q

overlapping generations vs. discrete generations

A

over. Nt = Noe^rt

discret. Nt = No*lambda^t

287
Q

projected population in 100 years if r=0.01 and No = 7 billion

A

19.6billion

Nt = No e^rt

288
Q

why can populations not grow indefinitely

A

finite resources run out

renewable resources are limited

289
Q

K

A

carrying capacity

290
Q

carrying capacity

A

total numbers of individuals of a species that be sustained in a habitat in the long term

291
Q

determining carrying capacity

A

often estimated indirectly as the average population numbers of the species observed across multiple years
many factors are involved, usually determined in hindsight

292
Q

logistic growth

A

population ‘flattens out’ as it approaches K

293
Q

types of / variations in logistic growth

A 
ideal logistic growth (smooth response)
damped oscillations (up and down before settling at k)
stable limit cycle (up and down around k without settling)
chaotic (extreme up and down, rise and crash)
294
Q

logistic growth equation

A

dN/dt = rN [ ( K - N ) / K ]

295
Q

carrying capacity of habitat is influenced by

A

most limiting resource

296
Q

if populations exceed K

A

resources decline– morality increases– birth rate decreases– population decreases

297
Q

factors limiting population growth

A

density-dependent population regulation

density-independent population regulation

298
Q

density-dependent population growth

A

due to intrinsic (natural) factors

due to individuals (birth rate, mortality)

299
Q

mechanisms for density-dependent effects when population exceeds K

A 
intraspecific competition 
delayed breeding/reduced offspring production
territoriality
dispersal
parasites/disease
predators
300
Q

intraspecific competition (populations exceeding K)

A

occurs when required resources are in limited supply (food, space, mates)

301
Q

types of intraspecific competition

A

interference competition

differential ability to secure resources

302
Q

Inference competition

A

individuals interfere with others for limited resources

leads to one individual having less

303
Q

examples of inference competition

A

gulls stealing from others

lions excluding others from a kill

304
Q

differential ability to secure resources

A

law of constant final yield- only a certain amount can be sustained in certain area, ex. start with 1000 or 100 plants, end with ~same amount

305
Q

delayed breeding or reduced offspring production (populations exceeding K)

A

applicable to almost every bird and mammal

increased population = agonistic encounters = stress– females reabsorb embryo

306
Q

agonistic

A

combative, conflicting, aggressive/submissive interaction

307
Q

how stress can be birth control

A

stress triggers hyperactivation of hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenocortex- alters secretion of growth and sex hormones– suppression of body growth, reproduction, immune system– pregnant females enlarged adrenal glands, kidney inflammation, uterine mortality, reduced lactation

308
Q

young born to stressed mothers

A

low body weight, poor survival, delayed puberty, low reproductive rate

309
Q

delays puberty in juveniles born during periods of high population density

A

odour of female urine

310
Q

increased territoriality (populations exceeding K)

A

territorial defense by dominant individuals leads to reduced access to resources by sub-dominant individuals
leads to reduction in # of non-territorial individuals (reduced reproduction)

311
Q

dispersal (populations exceeding K)

A

migration
w/o migration population exceeds K and crashes
with migration population can ‘flatten’ at K

312
Q

example of parasite/disease controlling population

A

Myxomatosis introduced in European rabbits in Australia, 99% mortality

313
Q

example 2 of parasite/disease controlling population

A

gastrointestinal nematodes– reindeer– negative impact on female reindeer becoming pregnant– parasites have potential to regulate population dynamics– in presence of parasite populations = stable dynamics

314
Q

average number of parasite species per host

A 
fish ~2
birds ~8
mammals ~15
bugs, beetles, flies 4-6
butterflies, moths ~10
trees 95
315
Q

Predators (populations exceeding K)

A

major source of mortality in survivorship curve

increased density of prey = predator expansion = proportionately greater predation on prey

316
Q

parasitic wasp

A

~1mm, lays one parasitic eggs in each aphid, rapidly controls population

317
Q

analysis of density dependent population regulation

A

parasites and disease - ~50% insects
predators - ~40% insects
mortality from limited food- ~40% small mammals/birds, ~50% insects, ~90% large mammals
mortality from limited space- 100% small mammals/birds

318
Q

density-independent population regulation

A

reduction in carrying capacity of habitat
mainly due to extrinsic factors
mortality due to severe external conditions
mostly independent of NK

319
Q

examples of density-independent population regulation

A

winter, severe draught, fire

320
Q

lynx abundance

A

correlated to snowshoe hare abundance- increased food source

321
Q

snowshoe hare abundance

A

correlated with 11yr cycles sunspots– higher solar output, more plant life, more food for winter

322
Q

why don’t hare, lynx, sunspot curves match all the time

A

many factors are working together- plants produce anti-grazing chemicals, lynx produces stress changes in hares, hares reproduce less

323
Q

a population of 50 female deer with stable age distribution has a Net Reproductive Rate of 1.1, if generation time is 2yrs, population is increasing by how many female individuals per generation

A

2

324
Q

if population = 50, NRR = 1.1, generation time = 2yrs, population increases by 2 individuals per generation, how many will there be in 20 years?

A

130

325
Q

anti grazing chemicals

A

phenols, bitter, less delicious, less nutritious

326
Q

subcategories of interactions

A

competition, niche concepts, predation, defenses

327
Q

Interspecific competition

A

any use or defense of a resource by one species that reduces the availability of that resource to other species

328
Q

resource

A

any substance that leads to individual/population growth if substance is increased

329
Q

resources

A

food, water, trace elements, space, elements (O2, CO2)

330
Q

is air a resource

A

not generally (unless it was limited)

331
Q

Liebigs law of the minimum

A

we often don’t know what the limiting resource is

332
Q

what did Justus von Liebig do

A

discovered that nitrogen is the major nutrient for plants

333
Q

competitive exclusion principle

A

Gause’s Law of competitive exclusion

2 species with same niche cannot coexist

334
Q

Gause’s discovery

A

paramecium grown separately had logistic growth curves, grown together one species crashed, one species always outcompeted the other

335
Q

evidence of interspecific competition

A

habitat shifts in allopatry and sympatry
character displacement and resource partitioning
habitat differences and resource partitioning
allelopathy

336
Q

character displacement

A

feeding structures, breeding times, changing bill size, displacement of characters reduces competition

337
Q

alpha

A

competition coefficient
per capita competitive effect of species 2 on species 1
measure of inhibitory effect “

338
Q

alpha = 1

A

one individual of species 2 equals one individual of species 1

339
Q

alpha = 0.1

A

then 10 individuals of species 2 equals one individual of species 1

340
Q

total competitive effect of species 2 on species 1 =

A

alpha * N2

N2 - population size of species 2

341
Q

competition model

A

dN1/dt = r1N1 [ (K1 - N1) - alphaN2] / K1

342
Q

to coexist 2 species must have

A

alpha ~ 1.3 difference (ratio) in feeding parts

343
Q

paradox of the plankton

A

limited range of resources supports wide range of planktonic organisms, paradox results from competitive exclusion principle, which suggests when 2 species compete for the same resource, only one will persist

344
Q

grain beetle competitive exclusion

A

just a 3.2ºC difference in habitat switches competitive ability of two beetle species

345
Q

allopatric speciation

A

populations of same species become isolated from each other, prevents genetic interchange

346
Q

sympatric speciation

A

new species evolve from single ancestral species while inhabiting same geographic region

347
Q

habitat shifts in allopatry and sympatry

A

allopatric populations habitat whole area, sympatric populations stick to one area, ex. when fish species are mixed one species lives in middle of lake, other around edges and bottom

348
Q

character displacement (interspecific competition)

A

two allopatric species have same size feeding structures

species in sympatry have different size feeding structures

349
Q

hutchinsons ratio

A

character displacement, size differences between similar species when living together compared to when isolated

350
Q

average hutchinsons ratio for sympatric species

A

1.28

351
Q

sympatric monkeyflowers (reproductive character displacement)

A

mean divergence of reproductive structures was greater in sympatric than allopatric, P values of reproductive structures <0.05

352
Q

types of habitat differences and resource partitioning

A

the ghost of competition past

competition in the present

353
Q

the ghost of competition past

A

at some point in the past, several species inhabited an area, all of these species had overlapping niches, through competitive exclusion, the less competitive species were eliminated, leaving only the species able to coexist

354
Q

example of ghost of competition past

A

desert plants- developed different root systems to coexist

355
Q

competition in the present

A

exotic species- artificially introduced, displacement of native species

356
Q

examples of competition in the present

A

European starlings introduced to New York, most common nesting bird in US and south Canada, Scotch Broom from Europe threatening Vancouver island

357
Q

allelopathy

A

chemical competition in plants and animals

release of chemicals by one species in order to reduce growth/survivorship of another

358
Q

examples of allelopathy

A 
antibiotics, poisons
penicillin by mild
jug lone by black walnut tree 
terpines by salvia 
corrals produce defenses to stop overgrowth from others
359
Q

juglone

A

highly toxic, kills/injures other plants species within 20m, toxic to herbivore insects, reduces growth of weeds

360
Q

species resistant to juglone

A

corn, maple, birch

361
Q

salvia study

A

salvia produces terpines when predation is a problem

doesn’t when it is not (when caged)

362
Q

habitat

A

physical place where an organism lives

363
Q

niche

A

how an organism makes its living (carnivore, herbivore)

364
Q

Elton’s niche

A

the role of a species in a community

365
Q

Hutchinson’s niche

A

all biophysical conditions that characterize the life of a species

366
Q

fundamental niche

A

entire multidimensional space that represents the total range of conditions within which an organism can function without limiting factors (prospective ecospace)

367
Q

realized niche

A

actual multidimensional space that a species can occupy taking into account biotic factors such as predators, competitors and parasites (actual ecospace)

368
Q

variable in quantifying niche space

A 
d = distance between two species in average resource use (peak to peak, between species)
w = measure of resource spectrum breadth of a species (peak to one side of curve, each species)
K = resource availability
369
Q

d/w < 1 (quantifying niche space)

A

no co-existance

370
Q

d/w > 1 (quantifying niche space)

A

full co-existance

371
Q

resource spectrums

A

most species have narrow resource spectrum
specialists have VERY narrow resource spectrum
ex. pandas only eat bamboo

372
Q

Hutchinson’s concept of niche space

A

viewing overlap between species in multi dimensions
ex. foraging height, size of prey, time of day
n-dimensional hypervolume
increases organisms ability to coexist

373
Q

biophagy

A

predation

374
Q

types of predation

A

carnivory
herbivory (grazing, browsing)
parasitism (pathogens, parasitoids)
detritivores (dead plant/animal)

375
Q

FRC

A

functional response curves

376
Q

Functional response curves

A

rate of food consumption and density of prey

FRC#I, FRC#II, FRC#III

377
Q

FRC#II

A

positively sloped, flattens out
single prey species
consumer is limited by its capacity to process food
only needs so much , satiated, caloric requirements met

378
Q

FRC#III

A

standard logistic curve
multiple prey species
increases slower than II

379
Q

threshold of security

A

occurs when there are multiple prey species

minimum density under which no further predation occurs- asymptote at lower end of curve

380
Q

why threshold of security

A

when there are a rare amount of prey, go to new location or find other prey species to consume

381
Q

FRC#1

A

increasing linearly
single prey species
assumes time needed by consumer to process food is negligible, consuming food does not interfere with searching for food
mostly theoretical, can apply to species with very high metabolism

382
Q

low prey densities

A

reduced search efficiency
prey switching
search image
aggregated responses of predators

383
Q

search image

A

predator develops ‘image’ of what to search for based on first prey it sees (likely most common)

384
Q

proportion of prey population taken by predator predicts that

A

predators are rarely able to overexploit the prey

385
Q

age class of prey taken by predators

A

virtually all predators target juveniles and post-reproductive adults
lowest cost of injury

386
Q

salmon field study (removal of predators)

A

removal of predatory birds- twice as many smolts made it to ocean but same number returned, exceeded carrying capacity

387
Q

grouse study (removal of predators)

A

removal of predators had no effect on grouse population

‘law of minimum’, prey not controlled by predators

388
Q

mink predation on muskrat populations

A

most predation occurred on muskrats that had sen excluded from territories due to infraspecific competition, predators took prey where N>K
predators did not control population

389
Q

wolf predation on caribou

A

without wolves caribou exceed K and population crashes
wolves keep caribou numbers from exceeding K
predator controls prey population in some sense

390
Q

Isle Royal

A

wolves all homozygous, been studied since 1959, going extinct, moose population greatly increasing

391
Q

parasitic wasp

A

2 stings to adult cockroach, 1 buckles front legs, 2 into brain, uses sensors along stinger to guid through brain, venom eliminates escape reflex, wasp leads cockroach by antennae, ‘zombie’ led to wasps burrow, wasp lays egg on underside of cockroach, plugs up burrow, egg hatches, larva chew hole in cockroach and climbs in, grows inside, devouring

392
Q

do predators limit/control prey density

A

in some circumstances
no if Leibigs law of minimum is acting
yes if carrying capacity has been exceeded
yes but limits tendency of prey population to exceed K
yes when native prey have no defences against non-native predators

393
Q

dingo - kangaroo relationship

A

no dingos = higher density of kangaroos present

394
Q

dingo - wild pig relationship

A

with dines absent, biggest increase in population density was in babies

395
Q

the biomass ratio of predator to prey in a community of endothermic predators and prey would be

A

~ 1:250

396
Q

why is endothermic biomass ratio so high

A

endotherms have high energy requirements for thermoregulation

397
Q

ectotherm biomass ratio

A

20:100 (1:5)

398
Q

exploitation rate of prey by predator

A

average 5% for each predator species (mostly new born and old)

399
Q

exploitation rate is low because

A

there are multiple predators per prey

why predators can coexist

400
Q

increase in exploitation can be seen

A

up north (less predators)

401
Q

highest exploitation rate

A

humans.. by far

only predator that take reproductive adults (target the reproductive capital)

402
Q

escape tactics

A

camoflouge, disruptive colouration, crypsis, aposematic, mullerian mimicry, batesian mimicry

403
Q

aposematic

A

be conspicuous
advertising poison/pain
predators learn to minimize contact
warning signal

404
Q

mullerian mimicry

A

many poisonous species develop same conspicuous colour patterns (mimic each other), similar patterns among poisonous species (7 poisonous butterflies with same colour pattern)

405
Q

batesian mimicry

A

non-stinging/edible species mimics stinging/poisonous species, very precise
ex. hoverfly mimics yellowjacket wasp

406
Q

post-capture defenses

A

speed, agility, stamina, protean behaviour, autotomy-limb release, spines/armor/behaviour, reflexive bleeding, venomous

407
Q

protean behaviour

A

unpredictable escape response (predator can’t adapt)

one of most common escape responses of prey

408
Q

autotomy

A

lizard removing tail, crab releasing claw

409
Q

reflexive bleeding

A

beetle with 2 separate chemical pouches, can combine them and spray at predator- hot, chemical reaction, blinding

410
Q

effects of herbivory on plants

A

defoliation
loss of plant vigour, loss of competitive ability
young leaves consumed first (less lignin, most nutrients)
growth rate of plant reduced by up to 25%

411
Q

young leaves consumed first

A

less lignin
most nutrients
less bitter
taste better

412
Q

plant structural defenses

A

cactus spikes- protect water supply

413
Q

plant chemical defenses

A 
unpleasant odour
contact irriation
bitter taste
neurotoxins
proteinase inhibitors
growth hormone mimics
psychotropic effects
414
Q

anti-browsing chemicals

A

alcohols, alkaloids, quinones, glycosides, flavenoids, raphides

415
Q

plant unpleasant odour

A

mustard

416
Q

plant contact irritation

A

poison ivy

417
Q

plant bitter taste

A

very common

Red Ceder- tannins

418
Q

plant neurotoxins

A

dinoflagellates (marine algae), paralytic shellfish poisoning

419
Q

plant proteinase inhibitors

A

cotton, chickpea, potato

stops digestion

420
Q

growth hormone mimics

A

catnip:
nepetalactone (mosquito/tick repellant)
iridodial (attracts aphid eating lacewing)

421
Q

psychotropic effects

A

peyote (mescaline)
marijuana (THC)
coffee (caffeine)

422
Q

animals utilizing anti-browsing chemicals

A

monarch butterfly- milkweed

poison dart frog- leaf cutter ant

423
Q

antibrowsing compounds in spider food

A

mescaline– irregular web

caffeine– VERY irregular web

424
Q

selective browsing of plants with anti browsing compounds

A

leaf veins are under positive pressure with toxins

don’t bite veins!

425
Q

animal defense against plant chemical defenses

A

mixed function oxidaze
concentration of toxins
selective browsing

426
Q

top anti predator mechanisms

A
  1. chemical- reflexive bleeding, toxic chemicals 46%
  2. fighting- stinging, biting, kicking, 11%
  3. crypsis- camoflouge 9%
  4. escape- running/flying, 8%
  5. mimicry- batesian/mullerian, 5%
427
Q

interaction categories

A

competition, niche concepts, predation, defenses

428
Q

ecological succession

A

continuous unidirectional sequential change in the species composition of the community

429
Q

primary succession

A

initial establishment of plant and animal communities on substrates lacking living organisms
ex. bare rock, lava, sand dune, glacial melt pond, rainwater

430
Q

alder trees

A

fix nitrogen, can grow on bedrock

die, make soil, others can grow

431
Q

ecological succession

A

1º - from original material (rock slide/lava)

2º - change of an established community

432
Q

secondary succesion

A

ponds/lakes accumulate sediment
vegetation develops on shoreline
eventually replaced with terrestrial community

433
Q

each sequential community in ecological succession

A

seral stage

434
Q

climax

A

last serial stage that has long duration and changes very slowly

435
Q

early stage succession of pond

A

sedges and reeds, quaking bog

436
Q

seral stage

A

not discrete stage

not always sequential, cycle back due to environmental factors (flood, fire, heavy storm, volcano, glaciation)

437
Q

identifying succession

A

yearly pollen influx settles to bottom of pond
take core sample
identify pollen species

438
Q

reconstruct vegetation history

A

radiocarbon dating
amplify minute quantities of DNA
animal/plant species determination

439
Q

radiocarbon dating

A

CO2- >99% C12

C14, half life 5730yrs, decays to 14N

440
Q

sedaDNA

A

securely dated DNA, molecular presence of species that appear absent in macro fossil record

441
Q

allogenic succession

A

abiotic disturbance

442
Q

autogenic succession

A

biotic disturbance

beaver dam, virus outbreak, invasive species

443
Q

lodgepole pine

A

has been replaced by douglas fir

from pond sediment cores

444
Q

species richness vs. seral stage

A

increases linearly to maximum, flattens out

445
Q

young forest

A

high plant diversity, low animal diversity, very dense, low sun, few habitats

446
Q

mammal/bird species diversity in forest after clear cutting

A

summer- immediately after, very high, dips, rises again

winter- immediately low, increases, flattens

447
Q

total biomass in seral stages following clearcutting

A

large increase, small decrease, levels off

448
Q

why decrease in total biomass following clear cutting

A

takes time for decomposers to reestablish, break down biomass

449
Q

problem with reestablishing clear cut forest

A

takes time for soil community to reestablish

450
Q

reestablishing communities in warm/wet climate

A

~100 yrs
Krakatau near Java
15m hot lava

451
Q

reestablishing communities in cold/dry climate

A

~20,000 yrs
Yukon
glaciation

452
Q

secondary growth forests have

A

almost no predatory insects

~1000 yrs to reestablish insect communities

453
Q

ecological mechanisms for succession

A

stochastic events
facilitation
inhibition
tolerance

454
Q

stochastic events (ecological mechanisms for succession)

A

unpredictable, who gets there first

455
Q

facilitation (ecological mechanisms for succession)

A

species creates conditions favourable for a succeeding species but not itself
major process in early stages
leads to assembly rules

456
Q

facilitation example

A

clover growth without soil– clovers produce soil for other plants to grow which shade out clover

457
Q

assembly rules

A

regular and sequential shift in species

species B cannot establish till species A is present

458
Q

examples assembly rules

A

predators cannot colonize successfully unless prey are present
pollinators can not colonize successfully unless flowering plants are present

459
Q

inhibition (ecological mechanisms for succession)

A

species inhibits the colonization of subsequent colonists

slows succession and prolongs a seral stage

460
Q

inhibition examples

A

allelopathy- plants/corals

competitive exclusion- intertidal communities

461
Q

gigartina abundance

A

red marine algae- high density if Ulva removed, low if Ulva present

462
Q

tolerance (ecological mechanisms for succession)

A

members of serial stage are those that co-exist due to use of different resources
combines facilitation + inhibition = ghost of competition past

463
Q

early seral stages

A 
seed dispersal - good
plant efficiency low light- low
resource acquisition - fast
biomass- small
stability- low
diversity- low
species life history - r
seed dispersal- wind
seed longevity - long
shoot to root ratio- high
464
Q

late seral stage

A 
seed dispersal - poor
plant efficiency low light- high
resource acquisition - slow
biomass- large
stability- high
diversity- high
species life history - k
seed dispersal- animals
seed longevity - short
shoot to root ratio- low
465
Q

trophic levels

A

the sequence of steps in a food chain or pyramid

466
Q

what are the trophic levels from lowest

A

primary producer– primary consumer– secondary consumer– tertiary consumer

467
Q

why trophic levels (food chains) are unrealistic

A

because real life situations involve food webs

468
Q

what determines food web complexity

A

number of trophic levels
chain length
connectance
linkage density

469
Q

what is chain length (in food web complexity)

A

number of links running from a primary producer to a top predator

470
Q

what is conductance (in food web complexity)

A

actual number of links in a food web divided by the total number of possible links (N)

471
Q

N = (in food web complexity)

A

[ n (n - 1) ] / 2

472
Q

linkage density (in food web complexity)

A

number of links per species

473
Q

has the largest effect on a system (food web)

A

species with high linkage density

474
Q

types of trophic pyramids

A

by numbers
by biomass
by energy

475
Q

number trophic pyramids

A

how many individuals per trophic level- tertiary consumer is on top (1 consumer : 250 prey)
how many individuals are supported- top is biggest level, bottom is small (one tree maybe)

476
Q

dominant species

A

a species with an effect on the community proportional to its biomass

477
Q

umbrella species (indicator species)

A

species used for conservation decisions, supporting an umbrella species can save the ecosystem

478
Q

examples of umbrella species

A

grizzly, panda, spotted owl, Garry oak

479
Q

example of dominant species

A

cod

480
Q

keystone species

A

a species with an effect on the community that is disproportional to its biomass or abundance

481
Q

example of keystone species

A

sea otter- without them sea urchins take over– eat kelp– nursing grounds collapse– entire sub tidal community shifts

482
Q

keystone molecule

A

DMS- dimethyl sulphide- produced when plankton feed on algae– attract bird/fish– they poop–nutrients increase algae growth

483
Q

the major advantage to breeding earlier in life rather than later is

A

is shortens generation time

484
Q

experimental removal of fish eating birds from a salmon river in eastern Canada led to which important ecological observation?

A

number of adult salmon returning to the river did not change

485
Q

today, there are about 7billion humans on the planet. the yearly mortality rate is ~1% and generation time is about 15years. If each female produced one daughter in her life, the earths total population would be closest to which one of the rolling in 50 years assuming these rates remain similar

A

4 billion

Biology (15 decks)

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