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Ecology Part II Flashcards

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1
Q

Major communities

A

Aquatic

Terrestrial

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2
Q

Aquatic communities

A

Marine

Freshwater

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3
Q

Marine communities

A

estuaries, intertidal, sub-tidal kelp beds, pelagic, deep sea, coral reefs

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4
Q

Terrestrial communities

A

tundra, temperate coniferous forests, temperate deciduous forests, grasslands, deserts, tropical forests

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5
Q

temperate coniferous forests

A

Boreal/Taiga

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6
Q

Estuaries are

A

partially enclosed body of water where freshwater flows into the ocean and mixes with salt water

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7
Q

Estuaries have

A

variable salinity, pH, sediments, nutrients, temperature

large # niches, biodiversity, productivity

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8
Q

important estuary ecology

A

major stopover for migratory birds throughout world

ex. fraser estuary

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9
Q

Different types of tides

A

MHWS, MHWN, MLWN, MLWS

Mean high/low water neap/spring

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10
Q

smaller high/low tides

A

neap tide

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11
Q

larger high/low tides

A

spring tides

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12
Q

Emersion curve

A

MHWS, MHWN, MLWN, MLWS (ft) vs. % exposure to air (0-100)
MLWS- pretty much 0%
curve tends towards 100 towards MHWS

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13
Q

Subtidal kelp bed ecology

A

high PP on planet
physical protection to shoreline communities
foraging/shelter for large # species

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14
Q

Types of benthic communities

A

Hot vents
Glass Sponge reefs
Deep water coral reefs (bioherms)

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15
Q

Arctic marine communities

A 
frozen ocean surrounded by land
~4000m depth, ~3m ice
upper 15m low salinity
layering of Atl./Pac. water
high summer plankton, cod, seals
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16
Q

Antarctic communities

A 
frozen continent surrounded by ocean
~98% ice up to 2km thick
mountainous- up4500m
low diversity- bacteria, lichen, penguins
ocean high PP and diversity
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17
Q

lake classifications

A

oligotrophic
dysotrophic
mesotrophic
eutrophic

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18
Q

oligotrophic

A

clear water - low productivity

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19
Q

dystrophic

A

stained lakes - low productivity

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20
Q

mesotrophic

A

intermediate productivity

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21
Q

eutrophic

A

high productivity

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22
Q

lake stratification

A

separation of lakes into three layers- Epilimnion, Metalimnion, Hypolimnion
due to density change with temperature

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23
Q

epilimnion

A

top of the lake

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24
Q

metalimnion

A

thermocline

middle layer- may change depth throughout the day

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25
Q

hypolimnion

A

bottom layer

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26
Q

dimictic lake

A

lake water turns over during the spring and the fall due to the higher density colder water and of 4ºC water, lower density of ice and warm water

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27
Q

Tundra characteristics

A

3-6mnths dark, north America, north Europe/Asia ice/snow/permafrost
surface soil .5m thaws in summer
3 strata

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28
Q

tundra strata

A

soild
ground
low shrubs

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29
Q

tundra ecology

A

cold-hardy plants
aquatic/terrestrial insects
shorebirds, waterfowl, seasonal
hare, fox, wolves, caribou, grizz, polar bear

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30
Q

Temperate coniferous forests found

A

central interior north america/europe/asia

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31
Q

temperate rainforests found

A

west coast NA

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32
Q

Temperate coniferous forest characteristics

A

conifers, limited shrubs, ferns, moss, limited diversity
trees- monopodial growth
4 strata
short summer, long cold winter

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33
Q

conifers

A

spruce, hemlock, fir, cedar, pine

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34
Q

monopodial growth

A

grow upward from a single point, single trunk or stem

to shed snow

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35
Q

temperate coniferous forest stratum

A

soil, ground, shrubs, trees

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36
Q

temperate coniferous forest ecology

A

slow decomposition (b/c of cold)
seasonal migrants
occasional hibernation/torpor (frozen)

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37
Q

temperate deciduous forest locations

A

below great lakes, WEurope - Italy, EChina- Japan

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38
Q

temperate deciduous forest characteristics

A

warm/wet summer, cold winter

5 strata

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39
Q

temperate deciduous forest stratum

A 
upper canopy (large trees)
lower canopy (small trees)
shrub layer
ground layer (herbs, ferns, mosses)
soil (decomposer community)
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40
Q

temperate deciduous forest ecology

A

high species diversity

seasonal migrants

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41
Q

prairies located

A

near temperate deciduous forests

mid US, mid belt across Europe/Asia, SE SouthAmerica

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42
Q

Savannas located

A

southern tip of NA
belt down SA
Southern half of Africa
large parts of Australia

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43
Q

Grasslands

A

pairies

savannas

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44
Q

Grassland characteristics

A 
3 strata
2m deep roots (** water is limiting resource)
high evaporation
long droughts
soil moisture protected by mulch
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45
Q

grassland stratum

A

soil
ground
sparse trees (**important for shade, trees limiting resource)

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46
Q

grassland ecology

A 
large grazers (buffalo)
small burrowing mammals
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47
Q

desert/semi desert found

A

30º belt of Europe, top half of africa, small parts of America, interior of Australia

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48
Q

desert characteristics

A

low rain, high T

3 strata

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49
Q

desert stratum

A

soil
ground
cactus

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50
Q

desert ecology

A

annual plants (if rainfall), succulents, desert shrubs
small, burrowing, seed-eating mammals
lizards
**nocturnality VIP

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51
Q

succulents

A

more than normally thickened and fleshy plants, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions

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52
Q

tropical forest location

A

equator- top of SA, mid Africa, SE of china, top E of Australia

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53
Q

tropical forest stratum

A

SIX strata- ABCDEF
A- emergent trees >60m (discontinuous)
B- up to 20m (discon.)
C- lowest trees (contin.)
D- shrub layer (tall herbs/ferns)
E- ground layer, herbaceous plants, seedlings
F- root/soil layer (shallow, poorly developed)

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54
Q

tropical forests A and E strata

A

connected by vines (Lianas)

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55
Q

tropical forest ecology

A

many epiphytes
high species diversity (most taxonomic groups)
high biological turnover
high nutrient recycling

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56
Q

tropical rainforest characteristics

A

incredibly rich/diverse
emergent trees have specific/unique bird/insect/epiphite communities
sympodial growth

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57
Q

emergent trees

A

grow way above other trees with unique communities

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58
Q

sympodial growth

A

outward growth (upside down triangle)

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59
Q

Temperate rainforest characteristics

A

very similar to temperate forests with oceanic processes moderating, more diversity, stabilized

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60
Q

Lianas

A

parasitic- conveyor belt of nutrients from ground to top of trees

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61
Q

air cells from top to bottom of globe

A

polar– ferrell– hadley– hadley– ferrel– polar

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62
Q

most important factors for predicting biodiversity

A

temperature, moisture

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63
Q

hight T, high-low moisture

A

Tropical rain forest– tropical forest– savanna– desert

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64
Q

mid T, high/mid - low moisture

A

temperate rain forest– temperate forest– grassland– desert

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65
Q

low moisture, med/low - low T

A

Taiga, Tundra

tundra = low T, low moisture

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66
Q

global trends in species abundance

A

taxonomic abundance and body size
aquatic vs. terrestrial
correlates of species richness– latitude, depth and altitude

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67
Q

communities that grow back quickly

A

Taiga, grassland- N2 is in soil

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68
Q

communities that don’t grow back quickly

A

savanna- N2 is above ground (trees)

tropical rainforest- latterating soil washes away in rain

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69
Q

poorly developed root system in tropical rainforest

A

soils are thin and nutrient depleted

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70
Q

scarify soil

A

lossened and broken up

needed for tropical rainforest regrowth

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71
Q

taiga clear cutting

A

20% reduction of growth after each clear cut

slow depletion of soil

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72
Q

subsidence zones

A

~30/60º - where air sinks in each cell, cold/dry air - deserts

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73
Q

vertebrate body mass

A

most abundantly small, <100g

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74
Q

most common body mass

A

.001 - .01 g (b/c of insects)

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75
Q

most abundant species

A

insects, viruses/bacteria, fungi, arachnids, protozoans, algae, plants
(smallest species)

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76
Q

earth areas

A

aquatic 71%

terrestrial 29%

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77
Q

earth aquatic/terrestrial species

A

aquatic- 2 million

terrestrial - 10 million

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78
Q

predicted terrestrial species based on terrestrial area

A

700,000

rapid cladogenesis on land?

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79
Q

correlation of species richness by latitude

A

many species much more abundant near equator (corals, fish, copepods)

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80
Q

don’t see large change in species abundance by latitude in

A

benthic species (nematodes)

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81
Q

richest vascular plant areas

A

brazil, columbia, (on/below equator)

china, mexico (above equator)

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82
Q

orchid species

A

> > > in tropics (up to 3000, compared to 40 in Canada)

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83
Q

tree species in NA

A

rely on isotherms

higher species = higher T and P

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84
Q

reliant on tree species diversity

A

high tree diversity = high insect diversity = large # amphibians

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85
Q

most bird rich communities

A

colombia, peru, brazil, indonesia, ecuador, venezuela

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86
Q

diversity decreases

A

~linearly with elevation (altitude)

plants, birds

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87
Q

species richness per ocean depth

A

intertidal richest
highest PP- arctic/antarctic
equator- high PP
algal bed/reefs, estuaries- smaller area– very high productivity

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88
Q

why high PP in polar regions

A

continual turnover of water- almost always at max density

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89
Q

why equator high PP

A

meeting of nutrient laden gyre currents

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90
Q

largest biome on earth

A

deep sea

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91
Q

deep sea biodiversity

A

among the highest, macro/meiofauna

high evenness

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92
Q

meiofauna

A

small benthic invertebrates

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93
Q

deep sea communities with extreme physiochemical processes

A

biodiversity low
abundance, biomass high
dominated by few species

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94
Q

peak deep sea diversity

A

intermediate depths

2000-3000m

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95
Q

high benthic diversity not recognized until

A

1960’s– fine mesh (250-500µm)

100 species/.25m^2 found

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96
Q

how far have bacteria been found

A

deepest layer of oceanic crust
1391m
oil drilling can reach 9km

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97
Q

mean net PP

A 
g/m^2 yr
algal bed, reefs- 2500 
tropics- 2200
temperate forest- 1300
estuaries- 1500
very high but small areas
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98
Q

world net PP

A

10^6 tonnes / yr
tropics - 37.4
open ocean - 41.5
cont- 56, ocean - 48

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99
Q

world biomass

A 
10^6 tonnes
tropics- 765
open ocean - 1
algal beds/reefs - 1.2
estuaries - 1.4
cont-550, ocean-10
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100
Q

biological deserts

A

NPP < 250
desert, open ocean
cultivated land (mostly growing grasses)

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101
Q

phytoplankton productivity

A

short generation time

small PP at a snapshot in time, very high over a yr

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102
Q

total bacteria biomass

A

~= all other PP biomass

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103
Q

ocean productivity

A

highest where large turnover (cold)

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104
Q

terrestrial productivity

A

highest where warm/wet (tropics)

changes based on season

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105
Q

climatic variations occur due to

A

uneven heating of earths surface during orbit (angle of inclination)

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106
Q

PET

A

potential evapotranspirational

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107
Q

PET is

A

the amount of water that COULD be evaporated and transpired IF there was sufficient water available

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108
Q

PET graph

A

tree species richness around globe vs. PET (mm/yr)
increases up and to right
cold+dry = very few species

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109
Q

why is there a large spread on the high PET end of PET graph

A

b/c PET represents amount of water that COULD be evaporated.. doesn’t mean that much water is present..

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110
Q

vertebrates vs. PET

A

increase up and to the right like trees, fn of tree diversity and moisture and T

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111
Q

explanations for global species richness

A 
PP
competition theory
predation theory
wind/animal pollinator theory
climate variability theory
spatial heterogeneity theory
environmental age theory
geological time and cladogenesis theory
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112
Q

competition theory results

A

temperate- r-select species- broad niches, low diversity

tropic- k-seleced species- narrow niches, higher diversity

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113
Q

predation theory

A

few predators/parasites= high herbivore density = low species richness
more predators = low herbivore density = high richness

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114
Q

predation theory results

A

temperate - few predators = lots of herbivores

tropics- many predators/parasites/specialists = low herbivore= more niche space

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115
Q

pollinator theory

A

more wind = less pollinators = low diversity

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116
Q

pollinator theory results

A

temperate = more wind = low diversity, flowers work harder for species of insects
tropics- more insects, flowers pollinated by specialists (one species- climate survivable by insects all yr)

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117
Q

climate variability theory

A

temperature similarity = more specialization

larger T range = lower # species

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118
Q

climate variability theory tropics

A

less variation = more opportunity for year round specialization

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119
Q

spatial heterogeneity theory

A

on a completely smooth sphere there is low niche opportunity, variations in surface create opportunity- mandelbrot series

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120
Q

insects vs. architectural rating (Opuntia)

A

leaves perpendicular = same area, photsynthesis, more insects (more niche space)

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121
Q

spatial heterogeneity theory results

A

temperate: few plants- few herbivores- few predators
tropic: many plants- many herbivore- many predators

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122
Q

bird species diversity

A

increase with plant species diversity, but more related to foliage height diversity (more niches)

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123
Q

example of tropics high specificity

A

up to 10 different mite niches on parrot/macaw feather

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124
Q

environmental age theory

A

assembly rules: deglaciation- plant regrow- insects regrow
recolonize quickest- wind dispersal seed plants
high insect abundance = plants been around a long time

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125
Q

low #’s of insects after long time

A

represent niche spaces of plants that have recently recolonized

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126
Q

geological time and cladogenesis theory

A

geographical isolation + natural selection + geological time = cladogenesis

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127
Q

example of geological time and cladogenesis theory

A

australia

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128
Q

length of time for origin of a new species

A

~1million years

potentially as short as 10,000 years

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129
Q

continental explanations for difference in species richness

A

PP, geological time

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130
Q

regional explanations for differences in species richness

A

PP, environmental age, spatial heterogeneity

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131
Q

Local community explanations for difference in species richness

A

competition, predation, spatial heterogeneity

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132
Q

number of species vs. area

A

mainland vs. island
island- greater slope (0.2-0.4)
(mainland ~0.1)
larger areas- island populations approach mainland
small areas- island populations &laquo_space;mainland

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133
Q

IBT

A

island biogeography

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134
Q

why lower # species on islands

A

dispersal barriers/distance from source
MVA/patch size
genetic diversity/homozygosity/extinction

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135
Q

lower number of species per island size

A

distance from sourceland

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136
Q

persistence of populations over 50 years based on original population size

A

> =100 – ~100%
51-100 – ~60%
<=50 – 0%

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137
Q

persistence of populations 15 or less

A

50% by 30 years

20% by 40 years

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138
Q

ecological disharmony

A

non-representative proportions of some species
Skewed balance of taxa relative to mainland
Superabundance of some taxa
Absence of other taxa

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139
Q

why ecological disharmony

A

different resource use
less trophic levels- unbalanced
species have different dispersals
predators- higher extinction rate

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140
Q

ex. ecological disharmony

A

amphibian niche space overtaken by other organisms (ex. birds) b/c they can’t swim throughs salt water

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141
Q

plant colonization graph

A

plant species vs. yr
wind dispersal seeds steeper sloped colonization rate
water dispersal

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142
Q

successive extinctions/colonizations

A

decrease in number species

leads to species turnover

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143
Q

MacArthur and Wilsons equilibrium model

A 
rate vs. # species present
immigration- decreasing
extinction- increasing
where lines cross- equilibrium
t(0) = large event (volcano)
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144
Q

why immigration curve starts so high in MacArthur/Wilson model

A

new area = large niche space = colonization by many species

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145
Q

when immigration curve = 0 in MacArthur/Wilson model

A

immigration is still occurring but colonization is not successful

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146
Q

high extinctions

A

small population size
resource depletion
small island
inbreeding

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147
Q

small island =

A

smaller population = higher extinction

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148
Q

near island =

A

high colonization rate

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149
Q

far, small island

A

equilibrium shifts left (lower species #)

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150
Q

at equilibrium (MacArthur/Wilson model)

A

actual species composition is in continuous state of change (continual extinctions/colonizations)

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151
Q

MacArthur/Wilson model can predict

A

numbers of species but not species composition

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152
Q

major issue with the loss of brazil rainforest

A

can’t be recolonized– no more source area, Brazil WAS the source area

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153
Q

MacArthur-Wilson experimental equilibrium theory test (1978)

A

defaunated mangrove islands at different distances to sourceland, took species counts over time

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154
Q

experimental equilibrium theory test results

A

species built up quickest in closest island
not same species as originally present (at first)
later- same species assemblage as original

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155
Q

conclusions from experimental equilibrium theory test

A

can’t predict species assemblage

CAN predict species assemblage GIVEN enough time

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156
Q

why- give enough time- do you wind up with the same species assemblage

A

tolerance- only certain species can live together under certain conditions- think niche dimensions

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157
Q

modifications to equilibrium theory

A

target effect
rescue effect
tripartite theory

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158
Q

target effect

A

larger islands have higher immigration rate than expected

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159
Q

rescue effect

A

close islands have higher immigration rate– reduces chances of extinction

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160
Q

Tripartite theory

A

3D graph of immigration vs. extinction vs. speciation
area/extinction on same axis
isolation/immigration on same axis
speciation is a function of multiple factors

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161
Q

stability of island community structure

A 
large island
high resistance to change
high resilience (ability to return to predisturbed state)
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162
Q

stability theories

A

stability vs. # species
diversity-stability hypothesis
rivet hypothesis
redundancy hypothesis

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163
Q

diversity-stability hypothesis

A

Charles Elton
function is linear increasing
loss of one species affects stability

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164
Q

rivet hypothesis

A

Paule, Anne Erhlich
fn nearly logarithmic, increasing
one-few species losses don’t effect stability (plane rivet analogy)

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165
Q

redundancy hypothesis

A 
Passenger hypothesis
Brian Walker
reaches asymptote early
species = passengers
species are not equal in stability importance
many species can be lost w/o effecting
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166
Q

stability crash in redundancy theory

A

only if loss of keystone/dominant species (like throwing the pilot off the plane)

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167
Q

world population 2013

A

7.1 billion

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168
Q

top populated countries

A

china 1.3 billion
india 1.1 bill
US 300 mill

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169
Q

most densely populated countries

A

bangladesh 1,002ppl/km^2
Japan 337ppl/km^2
india 328 ppl/km^2

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170
Q

global population growth rate

A

~1.1% – 75million ppl/yr

130M births, 55M deaths

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171
Q

largest annual growth rate is in

A

africa

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172
Q

lowest annual growth rate is in

A

Russia, Greenland, Canada

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173
Q

human population growth

A

exponential

~4 generations ago– lots of births– high Ro

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174
Q

how do we decide if the world is overpopulated

A

starvation
disease
conflict

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175
Q

starvation

A

> 30% undernourished
increased world hunger
increased malnourished areas

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176
Q

most undernourished countries

A 
congo
burundi
haiti
sierra leone
ethiopia
angola 
zambia
zimbabwe
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177
Q

Disease- child mortality rates

A

down from 11.9 mil (1990) to 6.9mil (2011)

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178
Q

conflict

A

new war every 2yrs

~378,000 deaths/yr

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179
Q

common causes of war

A

resource constraints and conflict

ethnocentrism

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180
Q

Impact (I)

A

= PAT
P - population size
A - per-capita consumption
T - environmental damage in order to supply each unit of consumption

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181
Q

Highest GNP

A

NA, Australia, western Europe

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182
Q

habitats lost

A

forests, grasslands, estuaries, coral reefs

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183
Q

Deforestation

A

clear cutting
variable retention
selective cutting

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184
Q

clear cutting

A

remove all trees in patches
12ha - 2000ha
80 yr rotation
most invasive/widespread/profit margin/common

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185
Q

variable retention

A

leave representative old growth in each cut block

10-30% retention

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186
Q

WFP

A

world food programme

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187
Q

selective cutting

A 
removal of single trees by helicopter
least invasive
makes small-gaps in canopy- seedlings develop
similar to natural disturbance
cost-prohibitive
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188
Q

problems with variable retention

A

small patches are subject to windfall- counter productive

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189
Q

madagascar

A

almost completely deforested
lateritic soil runs off into ocean
only place lemurs live

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190
Q

lateritic soil

A

soils leached of Si after deforestation

concentrated in Fe, Ni, Al, Mn

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191
Q

causes of deforestation in Brazilian Amazon

A

Cattle 65-70%
Agriculture 30-35%
Logging 2-3%

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192
Q

Brazil cattle herding

A

largest cattle herd in world
export to 170 countries
3X in past year

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193
Q

how do they clear cut in Brazil

A

slash and burn- have to burn to release nutrients

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194
Q

Had highest diversity of every taxonomic group on planet

A

Ecuador (no other source land)

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195
Q

countries with highest deforestation rates

A

Brazil- 3.5mil Ha/yr

Indonesia- 1.5 mil Ha/yr

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196
Q

largest changes in deforestation rates from 1990-2005

A

Peru- 200%
Viet Nam,Nigeria- 120%
Madagascar- 40% LESS
French Guiana, Brunei- ~10% LESS

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197
Q

Coastal temperate rainforest characteristics

A 
ancient trees (1000y old, 4m)
4 strata, structurally complex
species restricted to old growth
species rich
greatest biomass/ha of all ecosystems
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198
Q

coastal temperate rainforests are most productive where

A

on salmon rivers– nutrient transfer

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199
Q

coastal temperate rainforest seral stage recovery after clear cutting

A

1000yr

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200
Q

how much of worlds temperate rainforests have been cut

A

55%

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201
Q

how much of Washington’s, Organs, Californias ancient rainforests are gone

A

95%

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202
Q

BC has how much of worlds remaining coastal temperate rainforests?

A

1/4

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203
Q

Gribbell island story

A

30% white bears– clear cut watershed (1980s)– loss of salmon (4000–300kg/yr)– 80% reduction in major protein source for bear

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204
Q

Haida Gwaii deforestation

A

156,000 ha logged

70% of old growth gone

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205
Q

Prairie/Grassland human use

A

large increase in crop land and pasture land

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206
Q

Coral Reef characeristics

A

richest marine ecosystem

highest species diversity of vert. on planet

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207
Q

problems with coral reefs (the numbers)

A

75% globally degraded and in decline (over 30-40yrs)
80% reduction in Caribbean coral diversity
50% reduction in corals of Great Barrier Reef

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208
Q

why theres problems with coral reefs

A

warming of oceans, cyclones, ocean acidification, coliform bacteria, artisanal fishing, commercial fishing, aquaria trade

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209
Q

atmospheric habitat modification

A

CO2, water vapour, black carbon, CH4, nitrous oxide, NF3, CFCs, SO2, radioactivity

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210
Q

atmospheric molecules that increase global warming

A

CO2, H2O, black C, CH4, NO, NF3, CFCs

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211
Q

atmospheric molecule that reduced global warming

A

SO2– increases smog though

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212
Q

habitat loss- estuaries

A

very uncommon, very important
major cities
no comparable habitats for displaced species

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213
Q

sunlight comes in as

A

shortwave radiation (leaves as long wave)

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214
Q

Antarctic ice core oxygen isotopes

A

16O evaporates preferentially, snow is enriched in 18O

correlation between 18O/16O and T

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215
Q

[CO2] sep 2014

A

395ppm

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216
Q

when did CO2 go above 400pm

A

april 2013

Mauna Loa, Hawaii

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217
Q

fossil fuels from

A

300mya (Paleozoic)

218
Q

Carbon isotopes

A

12C:13C – 99%:1%
14C unstable
living plants absorb all 3
14C ‘dissapears’

219
Q

14C

A

1/2 life - 5730 yrs
decays to 14N
coal/oil do not contain 14C

220
Q

Suess effect

A

burning fossil fuels releases CO2 w/o 14C– can measure

221
Q

funders behind climate change denial effort

A

Koch brothers (Koch industries- petroleum, chemicals, oil)
dark money
ExxonMobil

222
Q

contributions to global warming

A

H2O 36-72%
CO2 9-26%
CH4 4-9%
O3 3-7%

223
Q

since 1890 the Arctic T has risen

A

1.9ºC - almost an entire degree from BC

224
Q

BC

A

formed through incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass, emitted in anthropogenic/naturally occurring soot
absorbs heat, reduces albedo

225
Q

dominant absorber of visible solar radiation in the atmosphere

A

BC

226
Q

BC most concentrated in

A

tropics- highest solar irradiance

227
Q

highest methane concentration

A

arctic

228
Q

N2O from

A

cultivated soils

transportation

229
Q

NF3

A

industrial gas- semiconductor manufacturing

GWP relative to CO2- 17200

230
Q

GWP

A

global warming potential

11% atmospheric increase /yr

231
Q

ozone formation

A

stratosphere- 20km
UVC + O2 = O + O
O2 + O = O3

232
Q

UV wavelengths

A

UVC <290nm - ionizing radiation
UVB 290-320nm
UVA 320-400nm

233
Q

atmospheric ozone absorption

A

99% of UVC

50% of UVB

234
Q

CFC

A

chlorofluorocarbon - freon
solvent, refrigerant, aerosol
rises high in atmos

235
Q

problem with CFC

A

UV knocks off one Cl
Cl steals O from O3
Free O collides with ClO and steals O.. Cl free to break apart another O3

236
Q

ozone hole forms

A

every Sep. on Antarctic stratospheric clouds

237
Q

ozone hole max

A

2007 - 27million km^2

238
Q

ramification of antarctic ozone hole

A

southern semi westerly wind intensification– large-scale changes in ventilation of southern oceans
‘sun burn’ in whales

239
Q

when does ozone depletion occur

A

local winter-spring

240
Q

Environment Canada cut ozone science

A

in the year that saw the first ozone hole in the northern hemisphere

241
Q

CO2 summary

A

397ppm
50% global warming
fossil fuels, deforestation

242
Q

CH4 summary

A

1.72ppmb (B)
19% global warming
rice paddies, landfills, burning, coal mining, gas exploitation, animals, sewage

243
Q

N2O summary

A

310ppb
4% global warming
cultivation, fossil fuel

244
Q

CFC summary

A

.28-.48ppb
15% global warming
aerosols, foam, insulator

245
Q

overall greenhouse gases

A

75% anthropogenic

25% natural

246
Q

ecologic consequences of global warming

A

loss of ice cover
extremes in weather system
coral reef bleaching

247
Q

responding most rapidly to global warming

A

Arctic- amplification of global warming

248
Q

global biodiversity low

A

during ‘greenhouse’ phases

249
Q

highest SO2 emissions

A

Europe - ~1980

Asia - now

250
Q

SO2

A

volcanoes, fossil fuels burning

acid rain

251
Q

acid rain

A

pH 3.2 (100X more acidic than normal rain (5.8))
fish eggs don’t survive
forest/crop damage

252
Q

acid rain equation

A

SO2/NOx + H2O – H2SO4/HNO3
25% HNO3
75% H2SO4

253
Q

WHO set healthy level of Air Quality Index

A

25µg

254
Q

Beijing air quality index

A

300 - bad
500 - hazardous
spring 2012 - 700!

255
Q

Radioactivity

A

nuclear power
Ur, Pu
450 plants in world
high efficiency, require little fuel, few greenhouse gases, can have high environment/human damage

256
Q

countries with most nuclear reactors

A

US - 100
France - 60
Japan - 50

257
Q

background radioactivity

A

0.034 MilliRoentgen /hr

fukushima leak - workers - 2.5mR/hr

258
Q

Chernobyl

A

Russia, April 25, 1986
as of 2004- >2.3million ppl hospitalized
nearly 1mill around the world died

259
Q

birth defects in Belarus since Chernobyl

A

up to 83%

cleft palate, downs, deformities

260
Q

Ukraine children

A

6000 heart deffects/yr
200% increase in birth defects
>1million children live in contaminated zones

261
Q

Death valley

A

70km2 nobody will every be able to live there again

262
Q

ocean acidification affects

A 
primary productivity
dominant species 
lowers biomass
ability to form shells
Fe availability
263
Q

what is ocean acidification

A

ocean is saturated with CaCO3
increasing atoms. CO2 reduces ocean pH and [HCO3]
happening within decades

264
Q

Exxon Valdez

A

March 24, 1989, Alaska
250,000 barrels of oil
10million gallons

265
Q

deaths from exxon valdez

A 
250,000 seabirds
2800 sea otters
300 harbour seal
250 bald eagles
22 whales
266
Q

sediment runoff

A

greatly affects corrals by blocking sunlight

267
Q

marine mammals

A

Biomagnification
highly contaminated with pollutants
PCB, PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
cancers, sterility

268
Q

POP

A

persistent organic pollutant

269
Q

bears that consume salmon

A

accumulate DDT, chlordanes, BDE-47

270
Q

probability of occurrence of solvents in groundwater

A

associated with dissolved oxygen content of groundwater, urban land use, population density, hydraulic properties of aquifer

271
Q

problems with groundwater contamination

A

health effects:
Mutagen
Carginogen
Teratogen

272
Q

mutagen

A

causes mutation to DNA

273
Q

carcinogen

A

causes cancer

274
Q

teratogen

A

causes birth defects

275
Q

arsenic causes

A

preservative in wood -90%

fossil fuel combustion, industrial, pesticides, natural deposits

276
Q

problems with arsenic

A

carcinogen, teratogen >300µg/L

standard level - 10µg/L

277
Q

DDT biomagnification in birds

A

10mill X increase in birds compared to in water

kidney failure– affects shell gland- causes birds to not be able to lay eggs with shells

278
Q

Hungary disaster

A

october 2010
burst of retaining wall of reservoirs– million m^3 of toxic waste released
killed all aquatic life

279
Q

Diclofenac

A

anti-inflammatory given to indian cattle– vultures eat dead cattle– dehydrated/kidney failure– vultures die– major increase in rabid dogs

280
Q

neonicotinoids

A 
most widely used insecticide
highly soluble
persist for long periods
leach into ground/water 
delayed toxic to insects-- declines in bird populations
281
Q

whaling

A

1880-1970 >90% depletion of whales

blue, fin, sei, bowhead, right, sperm, gray, humpback

282
Q

BC whaling

A 
1908-1967
5610 humbacks taken
6060 sperm
3779 sei
1378 blue
7520 fin
283
Q

IWC

A

international whaling commission

284
Q

what countries are NOT members of IWC?

A

Canada, Norway, Iceland

japan whales ‘for science’

285
Q

bluefin tuna

A

can get $700,000

population is collapsing

286
Q

based on trophic levels and biomass of PP… fish (4th trophic level) biomass

A

expected - 605x10^9kg/y

Acutal - 240x10^9kg/yr

287
Q

how much of prey should each predator species take

A

3%

3% of actual fish biomass is 7.2x10^9 kg/yr

288
Q

how much fish biomass we are actually taking

A

~80x10^9 kg/yr

289
Q

commercial fishing %exploitation rate of prey

A

40! should be 3..

290
Q

fishing down marine food webs

A

we started by capturing large prey– population collapse– over time, left with small species

291
Q

East coast fish biomass

A

1900 >11tonnes/km^2
2000 <3tonnes /km^2
5-10% of what there was 100 yrs ago

292
Q

problem with legal trade

A

how can we set allowable catches without knowing population sizes

293
Q

grizzly bear extent

A

historical- western half of NA

current- N and W Canada

294
Q

species importet in Britain over 7 months of 1976 that shouldn’t be legally traded

A

leopard 661
jaguar 279
polar bear 101

295
Q

legal trade of primates

A

35,000

2002– 40,000

296
Q

legal trade of parrots

A

> 450,000

2012– 320,000

297
Q

coral reef fish are caught

A

with cyanide bombs

350 million in 4 years

298
Q

dolphins are hunted

A

to be used as shark bait (meat stays on hook well)

299
Q

why aren’t tropical nature preserves very good

A

poachers still go in
‘empty forests’- most-all species >2kg pretty much extirpated
loss of symbionts- can’t conserve biodiversity

300
Q

Japan 2004 commercial hunt

A 
444 striped dolphins
197 bottlenose dolphins
102 pantropical spotted dolphins
293 rissos dolphins
117 pilot whales
12 false killer whales
301
Q

BC black bear hunt

A

10,000 /yr (legally)

6000 illegally

302
Q

canada seal hunt

A

100-400,000 /yr

~30million revenue

303
Q

major exporters of wildlife trade

A

argentina, australia, bolivia, brazil, canada, china, columbia, congo, honduras, india, indonesia, nepal, philippines, sout korea, taiwan, thailand, US

304
Q

major importers of wildlife trade

A

UK, US, united arab emirates, european union, canada, china, honking, japan, korea, singapore, taiwan, yemen

305
Q

NA songbird decline

A

began to manifest in 1980s
more in long distance migrators
more prevelant NE NA

306
Q

bird mortalities

A

feral cats&raquo_space;1billion/yr
windows 1billion/yr
high tension wires 200mill/yr
pesticides 100mill/yr

307
Q

large sea bird kill

A

attracted to lights on boats at night

5-10 die/night/boat

308
Q

introduction of exotic species

A

causes major habitat alteration and decline of native species

309
Q

non-native species example

A

pigs, goats for human consumption– rats at same time– major decline of native birds– mongoose introduced to control rats– major predation of native species

310
Q

why do pigs and goats outcompete other species

A

because they eat everything, take over

311
Q

problem with mongoose introduction

A

rats love native birds.. so do mongoose.. not a way to control rats

312
Q

exotic species have greater reproductive output

A

due to their alteration of the habitat

313
Q

problem with raising cattle

A

very uniform genetically- one pathogen easily passed– farmed cattle are vaccinated– pass virus to native species

314
Q

charles elton

A

the ecology of invasions by animals and plants

315
Q

countries with high % alien flora

A

New Zealand 46.7%
South Georgia 67.5%
Campbell Island 38.8%
Canada 21.8%

316
Q

feral

A

an animal living in the wild but descended from domesticated individuals

317
Q

domestic cat impact

A

1.4-3.7 billion mammals/yr

greatest source of anthropogenic mortality for US birds and mammals

318
Q

domestic cats in australia

A

every day in Australia 75million animals fall prey to ~15million feral cats

319
Q

Rinderpest

A

ungulate disease (morbiliviruses- measles, distemper..)
contaminated food
1990s 90% mortality in Kenya
saved domestics w/ vaccinations

320
Q

threats to endangered wildlife from domestic animals

A

canine distemper, rabies, mange, feline infectious peritonitis

321
Q

> 95% bat mortality

A

white-nose syndrome

fungal growth

322
Q

massive amphibian mortality around the globe

A

Chitrid amphibian disease

323
Q

hawaiian bird mortality

A

avian malaria

every species of bird below 1500m? extinct– higher than that no mosquitos– could persist

324
Q

average species persistance

A

1million years

325
Q

how many of the species that have lived over that last 550 million years are extinct

A

99%

326
Q

characteristic of natural extinction of a species

A

replaced by a different species (similar niche)- no overall trophic change in community

327
Q

determines whether species are prone to extinction

A 
rarity
dispersal ability
degree of specialization
population variability
trophic status
reproductive ability
328
Q

rarity

A

rare species- small disturbance causes extinction

common- small disturbance has minor effect (less prone to extinction)

329
Q

dispersal ability

A

poor dispersal– habitat destroyed- not able to reach new fragment
good dispersal– habitat destroyed- can reach new fragment

330
Q

degree of specialization

A

high = more prone to extinction

low specialization = less prone to extinction

331
Q

example of high specialization

A

panda bear, spotted owl

332
Q

example of low specialization

A

capuchin monkey, great horned owl

333
Q

population variability

A

high variability- sudden pop decline can lead to extinction

low variability- pop size relatively constant, extinction unlikely

334
Q

trophic status

A

high trophic status- top carnivores are few, prone to extinction
low trophic status- abundant, less prone to extinction

335
Q

numbers in trophic levels

A

plants- thousands
herbivores- hundrands
carnivores- tens

336
Q

reproductive ability

A

low reproductive ability- more prone to extinction ex. blue whale

337
Q

countries with most endangered mammals

A

Madagascar (53), Indonesia (49), Brazil (40)

338
Q

countries with most endangered birds

A

indonesia (135), brazil (123), china (83)

339
Q

countries with most endangered fish

A

USA (164), mexico (98), indonesia (29)

340
Q

highest % threat to all species

A 
habitat loss (85-90%)
exotic species (~50%)
341
Q

large marsupial extinction in Australia ~10,000ya

A

when humans colonized

342
Q

north american mammal extinction

A

when humans spread to NA

343
Q

examples of extinct mammals since 1600

A 
stellers seacow
thylacine
falkland isl wolf
sloth lemur
janaese sealion
dwarf hippo
344
Q

bird extinctions since 1600

A

great auk, dodo, passenger, pigeon, eskimo curlew, carolina parakeet, hawaiian honeycreeper (51 species extinct, 40 endangered)

345
Q

Philippine extinctions

A

10 endemic bird species, 9 extinct in last 50yrs (deforestation)

346
Q

hawaiian plants

A

1126 species, 90 extinct

347
Q

extinction based on island size in 100 years

A

25km^2 – 10%

1km^2 – 50%

348
Q

delayed biodiversity loss

A

extinction debt/extinction half life

349
Q

origination should

A

follow extinction

350
Q

natural extinction occurs

A

because one species is outcompeted by a new one

NOT what is happening now- extinction&raquo_space; origination

351
Q

normal extinction rate

A

few species/ year
now: 3000/year
evolving- <1/yr

352
Q

History of Conservation 1600-1900

A

european hunting preserves for monarchies
some of only natural forest in europe
ex. black forest, germany

353
Q

Henry David Thoreau

A

1840-1865 American naturalist/philosopher
progressive thinking for his time and ours, recluse
“The Maine Woods” - every creature is better alive than dead

354
Q

Alfred Wallace

A

1863, British Naturalist/collector

codiscoverer of natural selection, recluse, no destruction around-prophetic

355
Q

Established Parks

A 
Yosemite Valley, 1864 (Cali, Abraham Lincoln)
Yellowstone, 1872
Concept of biosphere, 1875
Banff, 1885
Jasper, 1907
Mount McKinley, 1917
Serengeti Park, 1951
356
Q

World conservation Union

A

IUCN, 1948

International Union for the Protection of Nature, 181 countries

357
Q

Aldo Leopold

A

Sand County Almanac, Sketches Here and There, 1948

One of the penalties of an ecological education is that one lives alone in a world of wounds

358
Q

Rachel Carson

A

1962, Silent Spring

359
Q

IBP

A

International Biological Program, 1964-1974

360
Q

The Population Bomb

A

Paul Ehrlich, 1968

human pop growing exponentially, growing/finding resources increasing linearly.. will lead to a crash

361
Q

UNFPA

A

1969 United Nations Population Fund

first effort to give women control over reproduction

362
Q

First Earth Day

A

1970

363
Q

first Landsat satellite

A

1972, global coverage of land use and PP

364
Q

CITES

A

1975, convention on international trade in endangered species
175 countries, 5000 animal species, 28000 plants, 3 classifications

365
Q

CITES classification

A

Appendix 1: threatened with extinction. Permits required

Appendix 2: not threatened but vulnerable. no permits required

366
Q

examples of species in appendix 1

A

tiger, leopard, jaguar, cheetah, chimp, gorilla, red panda, asiatic elephant

367
Q

example of species in appendix 2

A

great white shark, african grey parrot, green iguana, bilge mahogany

368
Q

The Diversity of Life

A

E.O. Wilson, 1992

369
Q

Ecological footprint

A

Rees, UBC, 1992

370
Q

Human welfare vs. ecological footprint

A

increased standard of living (human development index) = increased ecological footprint

371
Q

earths biocapacity

A

2.1 ha/person
many countries well above that
canada ~7, US ~9
Reimchen 8.8

372
Q

problem with ecological footprint model

A

does not consider # offspring - largest cause of overuse of world supplies

373
Q

projected population in 2100

A

at 2011 growth rate 18.5 bill
2 child families 8.7 bill
1 child families 1.4bil

374
Q

Kyoto Protocol

A

1997
ratified by 189 countries in 2009
intl treaty, binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions

375
Q

Protected area defined by IUCN

A

an area of land or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective means

376
Q

6 IUCN categories

A 
I Strict nature reserve/wildnerness area
II National and Provincial Parks
III National Monument
IV Habitat/species management area
V Protected landscape/seascape
VI Managed resource protected area
377
Q

IUCN category I

A

1a. strict nature reserve: managed mainly for science (ecological reserve)
1b. wilderness area: managed mainly for wilderness protection

378
Q

IUCN category II

A

national/provincial parks: managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation (very local, ex.Taj Mahal)

379
Q

IUCN category III

A

national monument: managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features (world heritage sites)

380
Q

IUCN category IV

A

Habitat/species management area: managed mainly for conservation through management intervention (introduced species removal)

381
Q

IUCN category V

A

Protected landscape/seascape: managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (Orca Pass International Stewardship Area)

382
Q

IUCN category VI

A

Managed resource protected area: managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystem (Crown land)

383
Q

WDPA

A

world database on protected areas, conservation decision making

384
Q

total area protected

A

cumulative total area protected ~18mill km
cumulative terrestrial- 14mill
marine 4mill

385
Q

global protection by IUCN category

A 
Ia. 5.5%
Ib. 5.4%
II. 23.5%
III. 1.5%
IV. 16.1%
V. 5.6%
VI. 23.3%
no category 19%
386
Q

global trends in protected lands

A

N=169, MOST <10%

387
Q

countries with greatest % protected area

A

Seychelles 94% (404km^2) Slovakia 72% (14,000km^2)

Greenland 45% (2.2mil km^2)

388
Q

protected areas in BC

A

> 1000

389
Q

Major IUCN concerns

A 
Paper Parks
Design Shortcomings
Internal threats
External threats
Trans international boundary effects
financing protected areas
390
Q

Paper Parks

A

park names exist on maps but with no implementation

391
Q

Design Shortcomings

a.

A

a. position of parks are chosen based on min political and industrial opposition and are ineffective to preserve biodiversity
many of world parks in deserts, ice caps, tundra mts (lowest diversity)

392
Q

Design Shortcomings

b.

A

b. size of parks are too small to preserve biodiversity due to fragmentation effect (small pop., increased extinction rate)
MVP, MVA

393
Q

MVP

A

maintain 90% genetic variability after 200yrs

394
Q

MVA

A

maintain genetic variability after 200 yrs

395
Q

fraction of initial genetic variation left after 500 generations

A

N=1000, 0.9
N=300, 0.5
N=100, 0.1
N=20, 0 (after 200 generations)

396
Q

inbreeding in animals can increase

A

susceptibility to pathogens

397
Q

10% probability of extinction in 100 years

A

safe

398
Q

vulnerable

A

20% probability of extinction in 20 years

399
Q

endangered

A

50% probability of extinction in 10 years

400
Q

critically endangered

A

> 50% probability of extinction in 10 years

401
Q

most common park size

A

<10km^2

402
Q

MVA for pop 2500

A

small herb. 10km^2
large herb. few 1000km^2
large carn. >100,000km^2

403
Q

Khutzeymateen Grizz sanctuary

A

450km^2

can’t persist in <50,000 km^2

404
Q

combined Jasper, Banff, Glacier, Yoho, Waterton

A

20,000 km^2

405
Q

Take away message from MVP population size vs. Persistence, years

A

Major IUCN concerns- design shortcomings- Size of parks are too small to preserve biodiversity due to fragmentation effect

406
Q

Major IUCN concerns, Internal threats to protected areas

A

infringement, poaching, fires, disease, groundwater reduction, invasive species, highways

407
Q

Yellowstone poaching

A

5000 violations/yr documented

~1:20 detection rate

408
Q

why rhinos are targeted

A

mythical chinese medicine- poached in south africa for chinese market (~1-200 left)

409
Q

bent line in MVP vs. persistence graph

A

> 90% survival, non-linear equation- more factors/constraints involved

410
Q

Park size needed is a function of

A

body size

411
Q

Banff correcting highway deaths

A

adding fences, underpasses, overpasses

from 81-2001 4051 large mammals were killed on highways

412
Q

Major IUCN concerns, External threats

A

outside the influence of management or control

headwater effects, dams, acid rain, ozone hole, climate change, biocides, pathogens

413
Q

example of external threats (IUCN concerns)

A

brucellosis- domestic cattle vaccinated, bison not

414
Q

IUCN trans international boundary effects

A

migration corridors

trans international boundary- migratory paths disrupted by protective area boundaries

415
Q

example of IUCN trans international boundary effects

A

Mexico-US fence blocks antelope migration- they have to climb under the fence :(

416
Q

Y2Y

A

yellowstone to yukon

idea to join all parks to allow dispersal/migration

417
Q

IUCN financing

A

currently 7billion/yr

required 40billion/yr

418
Q

Migratory Bird Treaty Act

A

1918, first statute to protect seabirds, recognized their importance in the nutrient cycle

419
Q

new regulation for Antarctica birds

A

bird colonies should be overflown below 2000ft- spooks them— crush their eggs (looks like a large predator)

420
Q

Downside to initiation of IWC

A

for decades hundreds of thousands of whales were killed (b/c they wouldn’t be able to soon)

421
Q

no-fishing zones

A

1970-1980, intl implementation of marine areas protected from commercial extraction of fish

422
Q

no-take zones

A

MPA- marine protected area

‘parks’ in ocean

423
Q

benefits of no-take zone

A

increased abundance of fish
increased presence of larger fish with exponential increase in reproductive output
increased species diversity
recovery of competitors, biodiversity, ecosystem processes

424
Q

no-take zone opposition

A

major by commercial/rec fisheries, government

say that MPAs not necessary- no strong evidence that reduction in fish extraction would benefit other wildlife

425
Q

Canadian Fisheries Act

A

No one shall hunt or kill fish or marine animals of any kind, other than porpoises, whales, walruses, sea lions, and hair by means of rockets, explosive materials, explosive projectile..
OTHER THAN?

426
Q

redefine MPA

A

IUCN 1988, any area of the intertidal or subtitle terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment

427
Q

recognized importance of no-fish zones

A

because fish populations rebounded during WWI

428
Q

why SUCH a large population increase (exponential) if no fishing

A

b/c fish can reproduce later– higher amounts

429
Q

proportion of global ocean area protected

A

Category I: 0.05%
Category II: 0.08%
2010: total 1.17%

430
Q

PIPA

A

Phoenix Islands Protected Area- 400 thous. km^2, one of the largest protected areas, MPA zone (can still fish), SW or Hawaii

431
Q

Gwaii Haanas

A

queen charlotte islands of BC

93% fishing as normal

432
Q

number MPAs in 2010

A

6800- very fragmented, marine animals migrate! not very protective

433
Q

where are there not no-take zones

A

in the highest productivity areas of the ocean- would conflict with commercial fishing

434
Q

meta analysis of MVP

A

4169 individuals

435
Q

songbird diversity

A

lower population = lower genetic variability = more similar songs
songs can predict fragmentation

436
Q

Approaches to Conservation Ecology

A 
Studies of fragmented areas
Critical habitat approach
Identifying biodiversity hotspots
identifying endemic species 
park design
437
Q

nesting trees

A

snags- owls need old, dead trees to reproduce

dead tree protected by law- left up when clear cutting

438
Q

Critical habitat approach

A

forest age structure
nesting trees
nutrient pulses

439
Q

biodiversity hot spots

A

localized areas of high species diversity
localized areas of high density of individuals within a species
face exceptional threats of destruction

440
Q

examples of biodiversity hot spots

A

Ascension island
snake river
Triangle island
Monarch butterfly migration

441
Q

how much of hotspots have protection

A

<10%

median 8.4%

442
Q

Triangle island

A

Northern tip of Van Isl

huge [seabirds]- surrounding sea very rich (guano)- no predators to eat bird eggs

443
Q

Ascension island

A

essential for sea turtle reproduction

444
Q

snake river

A

very high # predatory birds nesting

445
Q

Earths plant species (diversity hot spots)

A

1/5 of plant species confined to 0.5% of Earths land surface

in habitats threatened with imminent destruction

446
Q

Yasuni national park

A

Ecuador, biological hot spot- highest bird/orca/insect diversity.. have oil

447
Q

endemic species

A

unique to an area

all countries, all ecosystems

448
Q

endemic species most common

A

on islands furthest from continents

Haida Gwaii, Hawaii, Galapagos, Madagascar

449
Q

our endemic species

A

VI marmot

450
Q

map of evolutionary uniqueness

A

degree of difference- genetic divergence, vertebrates, highest- Australia, Madagascar
medium- South America, South Africa
‘low’- North America, Europe, Asia

451
Q

degree of difference is used to

A

identify endemic species

452
Q

corals found to be how old

A

4,265years

based on radiocarbon dating

453
Q

Approaches to conservation ecology- park design

A

design best possible park, 10,000km^2?

connect exsiting parks, minimize edge effect, examine grids of species, roads, cities, max benefit, min cost, ownership

454
Q

SLOSS

A

park design

single large or several small?

455
Q

factors involved in park design

A

SLOSS, shape, position, corridor

456
Q

benefits of SL or SS (park design)

A

SS- capture more of the high quality habitat/diversity

SL- MVA

457
Q

shape (park design)

A

circular- less edge effect

longer- may be good for corridor, riparian, migration route

458
Q

Position (park design)

A 
close together (triangle)- greater opportunity for dispersal, bad- pathogen spread
line of areas- corridor, migration
459
Q

most parks SLOSS?

A

multiple small areas- lead to lower genetic diversity- not MVA

460
Q

distribution of living things depends on

A

niche differences

spatial/temporal constraint

461
Q

Restoration ecology

A

reconstruction of degraded habitats to pre disturbance state
reintroduction of recently extinct populations
removal of exotic species
Augmentation of ecosystem processes
Sustainable development

462
Q

ER

A

ecosystem restoration- process of assisting with the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed

463
Q

Yellowstone reintroduction

A

wolves extinct from hunting, agriculture, loss of habitat- loss of riparian zone due to large # elk

464
Q

reintroduction of wolves led to

A

decrease elk, increase riparian, berries, grizzlies, coyotes, birds, small mammals, shrubbery

465
Q

cascading effects

A

trophic downgrading, top-down forcing

system changes at herbivore e and plant trophic levels due to loss of large carnivores

466
Q

top-down forcing even affects

A

disease, wildfire, carbon sequestration, invasive species, biogeochemical cycles

467
Q

Galapagos rail

A

bird, vulnerable to invasive mammals

predation by pigs, habitat degradation by goats

468
Q

removal of pigs/goats on rail

A

increased pop density by over an order of magnitude in ~20yrs

469
Q

South Georgia rats

A

rats taken over- cull them with poison pellets- will kill birds, reindeer

470
Q

Reindeer are found

A

naturally only in Northern hemisphere

471
Q

South Georgia reindeer

A

introduced in 20th century, over 3000, no natural predators, damage natural habitat, endangering native sea birds– cull

472
Q

Red/Arctic foxes

A

native to Alaska, introduced to islands, loss of breeding/nesting for seabirds, shorebirds, waterfowl- cull – island restoration saved endangered Aleutian cackling Canada goose

473
Q

Scotch broom

A

introduced 1850, rapid spread, bank stabilizer-deep roots, rapid growth, strong competitor with natives- light, moisture, nutrients
no natural predator

474
Q

HBB

A

himalayan blackberry- invades riparian areas, forests, oak woodlands, meadows, roadside, clear cuts, open areas..
out competes natives, limit movement of animals

475
Q

augmentation of ecosystem processes

A

ID sources of biodiversity loss to allow supplement of limited resources and critical species interactions that facilitate recovery

476
Q

loss of songbirds, communication towers

A

avian fatalities can be reduced by 50-70% by light changes (communication towers)

477
Q

long os songbirds, windows

A

reduce collision: curtains, blinds, remove window plants, screens, non-reflective, one-way coating, angled down
doesn’t work: hawk decals, a few decals, owl figurine

478
Q

mesopredator

A

middle trophic level predators such as raccoons, skunks, snakes, coyote

479
Q

mesopredator cascade effect

A

affect distribution and abundance of smaller carnivores and prey
ex. coyote–cat–bird

480
Q

belowground biodiversity

A

contribute to aboveground biodiversity, structure/function of ecosystem, ecologic/evolutionary response of ecosystem to environment change

481
Q

sustainable development

A

longterm persistence of human society and environmental processes through intelligent ecological management- Y2Y, ecobridges

482
Q

Pleistocene rewilding

A

reintroducing lost North American megafauna to restore natural ecosystems

483
Q

massive rafaunation

A

replacing local rather than global extinctions- benefit conservation without risk of unpredictable interactions

484
Q

pleistocene rewinding has been called

A

frankenstein ecosystem

485
Q

sustainable development - zoos

A

> 1000 public zoos, conservation potential,

486
Q

WAZA

A

world association of zoos and aquariums
member of IUCN, CITES
recognize evidence-based conservation, integrated species conservation, horizon scans, promotes use of red list

487
Q

sustainable development, smithsonian, captive breeding

A

‘insurance policy’, conserving species that may not survive in the wild
conservation education, research, zoos

488
Q

species saved by captive breeding

A

guam rails, black footed ferrets, california condors, przewalskis horses, horned oryx, partula snails, spixs macaws

489
Q

captive breeding goals

A 
maintain healthy age structure
ensure reproduction successful
protect against disease
avoid inbreeding
maybe reintroduce back to wild
490
Q

captive breeding of vertebrates

A

recovery in 17 of 68 species whose threat levels were reduced

491
Q

VI marmot

A

1/5 endemic species to canada
critically endangered, high elevation alpine meadows
2003- only 30 left

492
Q

carbon credits

A

credit of currency for reducing greenhouse gas output

1 credit for 1 ton reduction CO2

493
Q

kyoto signed by

A

170 countries

not those with largest greenhouse gas output (US, China, India, Brazil, Canada withdrew)

494
Q

can fund reduction in greenhouse emissions by

A

clean energy projects- wind farms

495
Q

world electricity

A 
Coal 45%
natural gas 20%
nuclear 20%
hydro 8%
other 5%
496
Q

‘other’ world electricity

A

wind 2.9% (of total)
biomass 1.5%
geothermal 0.4%
solar 0.04%

497
Q

hydroelectricity

A

geographically limited, high ecological impact, low cost

498
Q

nuclear power

A

unlimited potential
fission/fusion
high risk- weapons, ecological, health

499
Q

photovoltaics

A

high potential, low risk, high cost

500
Q

PV growth

A

govt buyback of solar power at 3X retail price over 20yr contract

501
Q

OPA

A

ontario power authority- standard offer program, buys solar power at 0.42$ per kWh and sells back for current rate (0.055/kWh)
0.11$ for other power (wind, biomass, hydro)

502
Q

possible fixes for global warming

A 
carbon credits
hydroelectric
nuclear power
photovoltaics
solar-hydrogen econonmy
wind
new technofixes
503
Q

how does photovoltaic work

A

dissociates water to H2 + O2
stores the potential until night
night- H,O recombined using fuel cell, PV cell rests
fuel cells byproduct (H2O) recycled to be split again during the day

504
Q

spain windpoer

A

2009- 50% of country powered by wind

2013- produced more electricity than any other source

505
Q

windpower problems

A

bats- fly into b/c of low pressure
birds- fly into
can be fixed with lights, sensors, only running when really windy (7km/h)

506
Q

new technofixes

A

iron fertilization of ocean- carbon sequestration

507
Q

Fe fertilization

A

Fe severely limited in ocean
seeding ocean with Fe
causes PP bloom– deaths sink carbon

508
Q

problem with Fe fertilization

A

it also sinks the Fe.. continually seeding would be needed

509
Q

nutrient cycling between marine and terrestrial ecosystem

A

downloading

uploading

510
Q

downloading

A

rivers discharge sediment, trace elements, dissolved organic matter, nitrogen, phosphates

511
Q

downloading leads to

A

increased PP in estuaries and adjacent marine waters

512
Q

after salmon spawn

A

carcasses in estuaries– release nutrients (P,N)– increased growth of ulva– increased growth of copepods– increased # spawning salmon survive– increased # of salmon return next time

513
Q

riparian zone

A

forest habitat adjacent to stream that is influenced by stream parameters (hydrology, nutrients)

514
Q

chum salmon carcasses transferred to riparian zone

A

8 bears brought 3072 in one year
males- 2032
females- 1040
65% of salmon in stream

515
Q

uploading

A

terrestrial ecosystems affected by marine
rain, tides, sea birds, commercial fishing
bears bringing salmon into riparian

516
Q

salmon move to open ocean because

A

less predators

517
Q

species dependent on salmon

A

> 150

518
Q

why do bears not ~affect salmon reproduction

A

hate salmon testes- 70% of the time took spawned-out salmon

519
Q

how to tell male spawned out?

A

lose ~5% of testes by volume- measure of how many times they spawned

520
Q

importance of salmon in bear diet

A

70% of yearly protein

521
Q

limiting resource for vegetation in coastal forest

A

nitrogen

522
Q

salmon nitrogen

A

3% of total mass is N

contribute 120kg N/ha to riparian zone

523
Q

N stable isotopes

A

14N- 99.3% of total N

15N

524
Q

N standard

A

15N/14N of atmospheric N2

525
Q

nitrogen isotope ratios in species

A 
trees -4
deer -2
wolves 0 
phytoplankton 3
zooplankton 7
salmon 12
bear 15
526
Q

15N enrichment per trophic level

A

3ppt

527
Q

15N study looked at

A 
130 watershed coastal BC
50,000 plants 
20,000 insects
density of carcasses
density of predators/scavengers
samples of feathers/hair
528
Q

riparian salmon affect on birds

A

insects eat salmon– burrow for 6months–1000s hatch when birds migrate– influence migratory patterns

529
Q

nitrogen rich/poor soil indicator

A

high nutrient indicator plant species- high coverage below falls
low nutrient indicator species- high coverage above falls (no salmon)

530
Q

N in riparian plants

A

80% derived from salmon nutrients

531
Q

how to tell if salmon presence affects plant growth

A

take ancient tree cores, hard to detect N (1200C:1N)

appears coupled

532
Q

N in atmosphere

A

78%

533
Q

larger tree growth

A

appears to lag ~3yrs

534
Q

other evidence of higher nutrient levels below falls

A

Winter Wren 50% more dense below falls (large salmon diet)
Insect biomass
Wolves, Bears

535
Q

Bear hair segments

A

tip- spring diet
mid- summer diet
root - fall diet

536
Q

importance of salmon and bears

A

40X more bears on salmon watersheds
95% of autumn protein
30-80% yearly protein

537
Q

dual isotope model

A

D15N vs. D13C

538
Q

how much salmon bears transfer

A

each bear- 700 salmon/ 6 weeks

539
Q

salmon carcasses per year

A

1000/km/year

2.4 million kg

540
Q

dominant species

A

salmon

541
Q

keystone species

A

bears

Biology (15 decks)

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