Unit 2 Modules 2.3-2.7 Flashcards
The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Memory
What are the three steps in creating memories
encoding
storage
retrieval
The initial learning (3 types)
encoding
Maintaining the memory
storage
Information from storage
Retrieval
Part of retrieval:
What are the three ways to measure retention and show that you have it in your memory and can get it out of storage
Recall
recognition
relearning
Is the retrieval of previous learning. Example: Fill in the blank or essay question
recall
Is the identification of learned items. Example: Multiple-choice questions. Our ability to recognize information is vital
recognition
Measures how much faster material that has been forgotten can be learned again
relearning
Who discovered this?
Learning curve! Nonsense syllables? Example: If it took four hours to memorize a speech at the beginning of the school year, but at the end of the year, it only took one hour to relearn it. The three hours you saved is known as your _______ score
Hermann Ebbinghaus
saving
Memory models
_____: get information in
_____: retains the information
_____: later get the information back out of the brain
encode
store
retreive
Brains natural mode- processes many aspects simultaneously
parallel processing
Storage includes:
_______: immediate and brief memory from our senses
_______: brief few items (working memory-newer version-conscious active processing.)
_______: limitless knowledge, skills, experiences.
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
______: A split-second holding tank
This gives the brain ____ time–if the information is important, it moves to the ___-___ /______memory
It also prevents us from being overwhelmed
Records images of scenes of echoes of _______.
Iconic-visual: ___ of a second
Echoic-auditory: - seconds
sensory memory
decision
short-term/working
sounds
.5
3-4
In your conscious mind- it’s brief and holds a few items that later get stored or forgotten
Short-term or working memory
Repeating information to hold onto it for more than a few seconds
part of short-term/working memory
Maintenance rehearsal
We can remember about ___ items (plus or minus 2) without rehearsal
7
Short-term/working memory is extremely vulnerable to ______ or interference
interruption
Say there is a hypothetical central executive in working memory that coordinates new info in working memory with info in long term and makes sense out of it. It acts like a kind of ___ _____ for stimuli, but disappears quickly (10-30 sec)
What is this describing?
The central executive coordinates the activities of the phonological ___ and the visuospatial sketchpad.
mental scratchpad
Alan Baddeley model of working memory
loop
Briefly holds auditory information
phonological loop
Holds objects appearance and place in space
visuospatial sketchpad
The formation of new neurons. While learning is occurring we experience the forming of new pathways and neural interconnections are strengthened. This biological process happens through neurogenesis and long term potential (LTP)
neurogenesis
What happens in the synapse due to memory? ______ ____ ________ an increase in cell’s ____ potential after learning. The _____ grows more receptors to receive more information. This is a biological basis for learning and ______.
long term potentiation
firing
dendrite
memory
Unconscious, incidental info-space, time, frequency, word meanings, or well-learned info.
Automatic processing
Unconscious
Muscle memory
Procedural
Skills
Conditioned Response
Non-declarative memory
Time, space, frequency
Implicit
Requires attention and conscious effort
effortful processing
Conscious
Facts and Experiences
What you are learning in school
Declarative
Explicit
Memory related to future action
Prospective Memory
permanent storage
Long-term memory
What are the three types of LTM
Episodic
Semantic
procedural
Specific events sequentially. Like the different episodes of a show
Explicit
episodic
General knowledge stored as facts, meaning, or categories
Explicit
semantic
Learned skills not requiring conscious recollection
like how to ride a bike
implicit
Procedural
When a recent experience influences a future action. Ex. being more likely to use a word you recently heard.
Priming
Is an unconsciously learned behavior (salivating)
conditioning
Increasing the capacity of our short-term memory by grouping info into meaningful units. Ex. Phone numbers, radio stations 101.5 or acronyms
Chunking
Chunking
Mnemonics
Hierarchies
Distributed practice
Deep Processing
Testing effect
Spacing effect
Making it personally meaningful (semantic processing)
Effortful processing strategies
A memory technique that can help increase the ability to recall and retain info
There are many types of these
mnemonics
Type of mnemonic
Mental pictures (imagery) are powerful aids to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
visual imagery
Type of mnemonic
memorizing pieces of info by visualizing them in various spatial locations (memory palace) Ex. remembering a grocery list by imagining the items in various places throughout your house
Method of Loci
are linked with numbers to make associations to help memorize a list.
Peg word system
Chunking information into a more familiar form
Acronyms
What were the four ways that Ebbinghaus found to improve memory?
Distributed practice
Overlearning
Testing effect
Rehearsal
Spacing our learning or not cramming
distributed practice
Continuing to review even after memorizing
overlearning
quizzing yourself instead of just rereading material
Testing effect
The more often you review the less you forget
rehearsal
In one study, students who reviewed their notes in detail before bed retained ____% after nine weeks compared to students who did not review and only retained about ___%
75
20
How memories are processed affects our _____ to retrieve them
ability
Is learning on a superficial level (lost quickly)
Simply memorizing material without attaching meaning to the words letters or sounds
shallow processing
Involves attaching meaning to new material.
Elaboration makes associations to existing memories (longer lasting) making it meaningful
Deep processing
____-____ storage seems to be limitless in the amount of information it can store; however, memories that are not retrieved can ____ or become forgotten or even changed
Long-term
degrade
We don’t store memories in 1 _____. They are stored throughout the brain in brain ____.
location
networks
Which structures influence the memory system?
It depends on the type of memory.
Implicit memory consists of the
cerebellum
Basal Ganglia
Explicit memory consists of the
frontal lobes
hippocampus
consolidation
Key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning
cerebellum
Deep structure involved in motor movement and procedural memory for skills. It receives info from cortex but doesn’t send info back to cortex for conscious awareness of procedural learning.
Basal ganglia
When recalling a password, left frontal lobe, when recalling a visual party scene, right frontal lobe
Frontal lobes
Like a save button for explicit memory
hippocampus
Happens while we sleep
consolidation
Sending memory to be stored throughout the brain
memory consolidation
emotional memory-Stress hormones provoke the______ to initiate memory traces in the frontal lobe and basal ganglia
amygdala
Clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Ex. Remembering 9/11 or a special birthday
Flashbulb memories
Once memories are in ____ ____ memory storage, we need to retrieve them or get them out. When we take them out we bring them to ___ ___ memory where we can open them, modify them and lay them back into ____ ____ memory.
long term
short term
long term
The way we lay down memory in __ ____ memory determines the ability to get them out or remember them. Things that influence our retrieval are…
Activating retrieval cues
priming
context
our state of being
serial position effect
Long term
______ are stored like spider webs in a pathway of associations
The more ____ (cues) you create with a memory, the more likely you are to retrieve it
The way we _____ information affects how we recall it later
Retrieval becomes easier when ____ with how it was encoded
memories
associations
encode
matched
exposure to one thing influences your reaction to a later item
being ____ with the color yellow makes you think of lemons or bananas rather than apples or watermelons
priming
primed
In the same physical setting as the memory (your room)
context-dependent
The cues you use to encode are the cues most helpful in retrieving the memory
encoding specificity principle
In the same state of mind as the memory (sleepy, energized)
State-dependent
In the same emotional state as the memory (sad, happy)
Mood-congruent
The tendency to remember items at the beginning and the end of a list rather then in the middle
serial position effect
More likely to remember items presented first
primacy effect
more likely to remember items presented last
recency effect
What are the two ways loss of memories can take place?
retrograde
anterograde
unable to remember old information
memory loss due to emotional or physical trauma
retrograde
The inability to form new memories
brain damage prevents the creation of new memories
anterograde
The difficulty in retrieving info from long-term memory can happen in 3 ways:
encoding failure
storage decay
retrieval failure
Never really learning it in the first place
Distraction, shallow processing, and age can all play a role
encoding failure
Natural forgetting over time
But we are able to return forgotten material faster the second time
Ebbinghaus studied memory and created a _______ ____.
He found that what we learn quickly ____ off after one day, but then begins to ____ over time
Storage Decay
forgetting curve
drops
plateau
Caused by inference (proactive and retroactive)
the Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is classified as this
retrieval failure
when other information in your memory competes with what you are trying to remember
interference
Remembering older memories (blocking new)
only being able to remember your old locker combination
remembering your old girlfriends number but not the new girlfriend
Proactive interference
Remembering newer material (blocking old)
Learning a new song makes it harder to recall an older one
When learning German, you can’t remember the Spanish word for house
Retroactive inference
The temporary inability to remember information that you know you have stored in LTM
to combat this we often think of surrounding memories. Ex. I know her, is she from work? maybe school? She is friends with Zoe, etc.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Old memories retrieved, altered, and stored again
reconsolidation
Elizabeth Loftus researched how leading questions can create false memories
Constructive memory
When a memory is corrupted by misleading info
misinformation effect
forgetting how info was acquired
Can result in confabulation (our brain’s filling in the memory gaps)
source amnesia
That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
source amnesia (forgetting how info was acquired) in one possible explanation for this phenomenon.
deja vu
Strategies for improving memory:
1.Rehearse repeatedly
2. make the material meaningful (semantic) (self-reference effect)
3. Activate retrieval cues
4. Use mnemonic devices
5. Minimize proactive and retroactive interference
6. Sleep more!!!!
7. Test your own knowledge
NICE!!!!
