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Anamtomy & Physiology > Unit 2 - Chapter 13 - Blood > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Chapter 13 - Blood Flashcards

1
Q

expand on blood tissue components

A
  • Liquid fraction of whole blood (extracellular
    part) called plasma
  • Cellular components suspended in the
    plasma make up the formed elements
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2
Q

what are normal volumes of blood/elements/plasma

A
  • Plasma: 2.6 L
  • Formed elements: 2.4 L
  • Whole blood: 4 to 6 L average or 7% to 9%
    of total body weight
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3
Q

expand on blood pH

A
  • Blood is alkaline: pH 7.35 to pH 7.45
  • Blood pH decreased toward neutral creates
    a condition called acidosis
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4
Q

expand on blood donations

A
  • Approximately 14 million units donated
    annually
  • Plasma volume expanders (such as
    albumin) can only maintain blood volume
    after hemorrhage for short periods
  • Storage of donated blood limited to 6 weeks
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5
Q

what is blod plasma

A

Liquid fraction of whole blood minus
formed elements

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6
Q

what is the composition of blood plasma

A

Water containing many dissolved
substances, including:
- Nutrients, salts
- About 3% of total O2 transported in blood
- About 5% of total CO2

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7
Q

what are the different plasma proteins found in plasma

A
  • Albumins
  • Globulins
  • Fibrinogen
  • Prothrombin
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8
Q

what is plasma called without the clotting factors

A

serum

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9
Q

expand on blood serum

A
  • Serum is liquid remaining after whole blood
    clots
  • Serum contains antibodies
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10
Q

what are the different formed elements of blood

A

RBCs (erythrocytes)

WBCs (leukocytes)
- Granular leukocytes (Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils)
- Agranular leukocytes (Lymphocytes and monocytes)
- Platelets; also called thrombocytes

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11
Q

expand on the numbers of formed elements of blood

A
  • RBCs: 4.2 to 6.2 million/mm3 of blood
  • WBCs: 5000 to 10,000/mm3 of blood
  • Platelets: 150,000 to 400,000/mm3 of blood
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12
Q

expand on the formation of blood cells

A
  • Red bone marrow (myeloid tissue) forms all
    blood cells except some lymphocytes and
    monocytes
  • Most other cells formed by lymphoid tissue
    in the lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen
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13
Q

what does a erythrocyte do

A

oxygen and carbon dioxide tranport

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14
Q

what does a neutrophil do

A

immune denfense (phagocytosis)

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15
Q

what does a eosinophil do

A

defense against parasites

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16
Q

what does a basophil do

A

inflammatory response and heparin secretion

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17
Q

what does a b lymphocyte do

A

antibody production precursor of plasma cells

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18
Q

what does a t lymphocyte cell do

A

cellular immune response

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19
Q

what does a monocyte do

A

immune defenses (phagocytosis)

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20
Q

what does a thrombocyte do

A

clots blood

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21
Q

what do most blood diseases result from

A

failure of myeloid and lymphoid tissues

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22
Q

what are the causes of blood diseases

A

-toxic chemicals
- radiation
- inherited defects
- nutritional deficiencies
- cancers, including leukemia

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23
Q

what is aspiration biopsy cytology

A

Aspiration biopsy cytology (ABC)
permits examination of blood-forming
tissues to assist in diagnosis of blood
diseases, if bone marrow failure is
suspected

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24
Q

what can be used to replace diseased or destroyed blood-forming tissues

A

Bone marrow, cord blood, and
hematopoietic stem cell transplants
may be used

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25
Q

expand on the structural finds of red blood cells

A
  • Tough and flexible plasma membrane
    deforms easily, allowing RBCs to pass
    through small-diameter capillaries
  • Biconcave disk (thin center and thicker
    edges) results in large cellular surface area
  • Absence of nucleus and cytoplasmic
    organelles limits life span to about 120 days
    but provides more cellular space for red
    pigment called hemoglobin (Hb)
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26
Q

what is the function of red blood cells

A
  • transportation of respiratory gases
  • homeostasis of acid-base balance
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27
Q

what is complete blood cell count

A

battery of labratory tests used to measure the amounts or levels of many blood constituents

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28
Q

what is Hematocrit (also called packed cell
volume, or PCV

A

the percentage of whole blood that is RBCs

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29
Q

what are the 3 red blood cells abnormalities that are names according to size

A
  • Normocytes: Normal size (about 8 to 9 μm in
    diameter)
  • Microcytic: Small size
  • Macrocytic: Large size
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30
Q

what are the 3 red blood cell abnormalities that are names according to hemoglobin content of cell

A
  • Normochromic: Normal Hb content
  • Hypochromic: Low Hb content
  • Hyperchromic: High Hb content
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31
Q

what is the composition of type a blood

A

Type A antigens in RBCs; anti-B type antibodies in plasma

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32
Q

what is the compositon of type b blood

A

Type B antigens in RBCs; anti-A type antibodies in plasma

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33
Q

what is the composition of type ab blood

A

Type A and type B antigens in RBCs; no anti-A or anti-B antibodies in plasma; called universal recipient blood

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34
Q

what is the composition of type o blood

A

No type A or type B antigens in RBCs; both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma; called universal donor blood

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35
Q

expand on rh-positive blood

A

rh factor antigen present in red blood cells

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36
Q

expand on rh-negative blood

A

No Rh factor present in RBCs; no anti-Rh
antibodies present naturally in plasma; anti-Rh
antibodies, however, appear in the plasma of
Rh-negative persons if Rh-positive RBCs have
been introduced into their bodies

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37
Q

expand on erythroblastosis fetalis

A

May occur when Rh-negative mother carries a
second Rh-positive fetus; caused by mother’s
Rh antibodies reacting with baby’s Rh-positive
cells

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38
Q

what is polycythemia caused by

A

cancerous transformation
of red bone marrow

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39
Q

what happens to red blood cells in polycythemia

A

Dramatic increase in RBC numbers: Often in
excess of 10 million/mm3 of blood;
hematocrit may reach 60%

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40
Q

what are signs and symptoms of polycythemia

A
  • Increased blood viscosity or thickness
  • Slow blood flow and coagulation problems
  • Frequent hemorrhages
  • Distention of blood vessels and hypertension
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41
Q

what are the treatment options for polycythemia

A
  • Blood removal
  • Irradiation and chemotherapy to
    suppress RBC production
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42
Q

what is anemia caused by

A

-Caused by low numbers or abnormal
RBCs or by low levels or defective types
of hemoglobin
- Normal Hb levels 12 to 14 g/100 mL of
blood
- Low Hb level (below 9 g/100 mL of blood)
classified as anemia

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43
Q

what are signs and symptoms of anemia

A

-Fatigue; skin pallor
- Weakness; faintness; headache
- Compensation results in increased heart
and respiratory rates

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44
Q

what is the difference between acute and chronic hemorrhagic anemia

A
  • in acute, blood loss is immediate
  • in chronic, blood loss occurs over time
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45
Q

what is aplastic anemia characterized by and what is it caused by

A
  • Characterized by low RBC numbers and
    destruction of bone marrow
  • Often caused by toxic chemicals, irradiation,
    or certain drugs
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46
Q

what are deficiency anemias caused by

A

Caused by inadequate supply of some
substance needed for RBC or
hemoglobin production

47
Q

expand on pernicious anemia

A
  • genetic related autoimmune disease
  • decreased rbc, ebc and platelet numbers
  • rbcs are macrocytic
48
Q

what is pernicious anemia caused by

A

vitamin b12 deficiency

49
Q

what are symptoms of pernicious anemia

A
  • classic anemia symptoms
  • central nervous system impairment
50
Q

what is the treatment for pernicious anemia

A
  • repeated b12 injection
51
Q

expand on folate deficiency anemia

A
  • Caused by folate (vitamin B9) deficiency
  • Decreased RBC count
  • Common in alcoholism and malnutrition
52
Q

what occurs in iron deficiency anemia

A
  • RBCs are microcytic and hypochromic
  • Hematocrit is decreased
53
Q

what is iron deficiency anemia caused by

A

Caused by deficiency of or inability to
absorb iron needed for Hb synthesis
(dietary iron deficiency is common
worldwide)

54
Q

what is the treatment for iron deficiency anemia

A

Treatment is oral administration of iron
compounds

55
Q

what is the cause of hemolytic anemias

A

Caused by decreased RBC life span or
increased RBC rate of destruction

56
Q

what are the symptoms of hemolytic anemias

A

jaundice, swelling of
spleen, gallstone formation, and tissue
iron deposits, are related to retention of
RBC breakdown products

57
Q

what is sickle cell anemia and what happens to the rbcs

A
  • Genetic disease resulting in formation of
    abnormal hemoglobin (HbS); primarily
    found in African-Americans
  • RBCs become fragile and assume sickled
    shape when blood oxygen levels decrease
58
Q

what is the difference in mild sickle cell trait and more severe sickle cell disease

A
  • Mild sickle cell trait—result of one
    defective gene
  • More severe sickle cell disease—result of
    two defective genes; causes blood stasis,
    clotting, and episodes called crises that
    may be fatal
59
Q

expand on thalassemia

A
  • Group of inherited hemolytic anemias
    occurring primarily in people of
    Mediterranean descent
  • RBCs microcytic and short lived
  • Present as mild thalassemia trait and
    severe thalassemia major
  • Hb levels often fall below 7 g/100 mL of
    blood in thalassemia major
60
Q

what are the symptoms of thalassemia

A

Classic symptoms of anemia coupled
with skeletal deformities and swelling of
spleen and liver

61
Q

what is the treatment for thalassemia

A

Marrow and stem cell transplantation
needed for long-term treatment success

62
Q

what causes hemolytic disease of newborns and erythroblastosis fetalis

A

Caused by blood ABO or Rh factor
incompatibility during pregnancy
between developing baby and mother

63
Q

what do the maternal antibodies do in hemolytic disease of newborns and eryhtoblastosis fetalis

A

Maternal antibodies against “foreign”
fetal RBCs or Rh factor can cross
placenta, enter the fetal circulation, and
destroy the unborn baby’s red cells

64
Q

what are the symptoms in developing hemolytic disease of newborns and eryhtoblastosis fetalis

A

Symptoms in developing fetus related
to decline in RBC numbers and Hb
levels; jaundice, intravascular
coagulation, and heart and lung
damage are common

65
Q

what is the treatment for hemolytic disease of newborns and eryhtoblastosis fetalis

A

treatment may include in utero blood transfusions and premature delivery of the baby

66
Q

how can you prevent hemolytic disease of newborns and eryhtoblastosis fetalis

A
  • preventing rh factor incompatibility is now possible by administration of RhoGAM to Rh-negative mothers
67
Q

how are leukocytes categorized

A

Categorized by presence of granules
(granulocytes) or absence of granules
(agranulocytes)

68
Q

what is the normal wbc count in blood

A

Normal range is 5000 to 10,000/mm3 of blood

69
Q

what is leukopenia and when may it occur

A

Leukopenia: Abnormally low WBC count
(below 5000/mm3 of blood)

  • Occurs infrequently
  • May occur with malfunction of blood-
    forming tissues or diseases affecting
    immune system, such as AIDS
70
Q

what is leukocytosis, where is it found and what is it a sign of

A

Leukocytosis: Abnormally high WBC
count (over 10,000/mm3 of blood)

  • Frequent finding in bacterial infections
  • Classic sign in blood cancers (leukemia)
71
Q

what is differential wbc count

A

Component test in CBC; measures proportions of each type of WBC in blood sample

72
Q

within leukocytes there are 3 types of granulocytes. what are their names

A

neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils

73
Q

expand on neutrophils

A
  • Most numerous type of phagocyte
  • Numbers increase in bacterial infections
74
Q

expand on eosinophils

A
  • Weak phagocyte
  • Active against parasites and parasitic worms
  • Involved in allergic reactions
75
Q

expand on basophils

A
  • Related to mast cells in tissue spaces
  • Both mast cells and basophils secrete histamine
    (related to inflammation)
  • Basophils also secrete heparin (an anticoagulant)
76
Q

within leukocytes, there are 2 types of agranulocytes. what are their names

A

monocytes
lymphocytes

77
Q

expand on monocytes

A
  • Largest leukocytes
  • Aggressive phagocytes: Capable of engulfing
    larger bacteria and cancer cells
  • Develop into much larger cells called
    macrophages after leaving blood to enter tissue
    spaces
78
Q

expand on lymphocytes

A
  • B lymphocytes involved in immunity against
    disease by secretion of antibodies
  • Mature B lymphocytes called plasma cells
  • T lymphocytes involved in direct attack on
    bacteria or cancer cells (not antibody
    production)
79
Q

what do lymphoid neoplasms results from

A

result from B and T
lymphocyte precursor cells or their
descendent cell types

80
Q

what do myeloid neoplasms result from

A

malignant transformation of precursor cells of
granulocytic WBCs, monocytes, RBCs, and
platelets

81
Q

expand on multiple myeloma

A
  • Cancer of B lymphocytes called plasma
    cells
  • Most deadly blood cancer in people
    older than age 65
  • Causes bone marrow dysfunction and
    production of defective antibodies
82
Q

what is multiple myeloma charterized by

A
  • Recurrent infections and anemia
  • Destruction and fracture of bones
83
Q

what is the treatment for multiple myeloma

A

chemotherapy, drug
and antibody therapy, and marrow and
stem cell transplantation

84
Q

what is leukemia

A

WBC-related blood cancers

85
Q

explain the 4 different levels of leukemia

A
  • acute (rapid development of symptoms)
  • chronic (slow development of symptoms)
  • lymphocytic (affects lymphocytes)
  • myeloid (affects granular leukocytes as they develop in the red bone marrow)
86
Q

expand on chronic lymphocytic leukemia

A
  • Average age of onset is 65; rare before age 30
  • More common in men than in women
  • Often diagnosed unexpectedly in routine physical
    exams with discovery of marked B lymphocytic
    leukocytosis
  • Most patients live many years following diagnosis
87
Q

what are the symptoms of chronic lymphocytic leukemia

A

anemia, fatigue,
and enlarged—often painless—lymph nodes

88
Q

what is the treatment for chronic lymphocytic leukwmia

A

chemotherapy and irradiation

89
Q

expand on acute lymphocytic leukemia

A
  • Primarily a disease of children 3 to 7 years of
    age; 80% of children who develop leukemia
    have this form of the disease
  • Highly curable in children but less so in adults
90
Q

what are the symptoms and signs of acute lymphocytic leukemia

A
  • Onset is sudden; marked by fever, leukocytosis,
    bone pain, and increases in infections
  • Lymph node, spleen, and liver enlargement is
    common
91
Q

what is the treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia

A
  • Treatment includes chemotherapy, irradiation,
    and bone marrow or stem cell transplantation
92
Q

expand on chronic myeloid leukemia

A
  • accounts for about 20% of all cases of leukemia
  • occurs most often in adults 25 to 60 years of age
  • caused by cancerous transformation of granulocytic precursor cells in the bone moaarow
  • onset and progression of disease are slow
93
Q

what are symptoms and signs of chronic myeloid leukemia

A
  • fatigue, weight loss and weakness
  • marked granulocytic leukocytosis and extreme spleen enlargement
94
Q

what is the treatment for chronic myeloid leukemia

A

Treatment by new “designer drug”
Gleevec or bone marrow transplants is
curative in over 70% of cases

95
Q

expand on acute myeloid leukemia

A
  • Accounts for 80% of all cases of acute
    leukemia in adults and 20% of acute
    leukemia in children
  • Sudden onset and rapid progression
  • Prognosis is poor, with only about 50% of
    children and 30% of adults achieving long-
    term survival
96
Q

what are the symptoms of acute myeloid leukemia

A

leukocytosis, fatigue,
bone and joint pain, spongy bleeding
gums, anemia, and recurrent infections

97
Q

what is the treatment for leukemia

A

Bone marrow and stem cell
transplantation has increased cure rates

98
Q

expand on infectious monocucleosis

A
  • Noncancerous WBC disorder
  • Highest incidence between 15 and 25
    years of age
  • Caused by virus present in saliva of
    infected individuals
  • Leukocytosis of atypical lymphocytes
    with abundant cytoplasm and large
    nuclei
99
Q

what are the symptoms of infectious mononucleosis

A

fever, severe fatigue,
sore throat, rash, and enlargement of
lymph nodes and spleen

100
Q

what does the healing of infectious mononucleosis look like

A

Generally self-limited and resolves
without complications in about 4 to 6
weeks

101
Q

expand on platelets/blood clotting

A
  • Platelets play essential role in blood
    clotting
  • Blood vessel damage causes platelets to
    become sticky and form a “platelet plug”
  • Accumulated platelets release additional
    clotting factors that enter into the clotting
    mechanism
  • Platelets ultimately become a part of the
    clot itself
102
Q

expand on the clotting mechanism

A
  • Damaged tissue cells release clotting factors
    leading to formation of prothrombin activator,
    which combines with platelet-produced
    prothrombin activator
  • Prothrombin activator and calcium convert
    prothrombin to thrombin
  • Thrombin reacts with fibrinogen to form fibrin
  • Fibrin threads form a tangle to trap RBCs (and
    other formed elements) to produce a blood
    clot
103
Q

how can you alter the blood clotting mechanism

A
  • Application of gauze (rough surface) to
    wound causes platelet aggregation and
    release of clotting factors
  • Administration of vitamin K increases
    synthesis of prothrombin
  • Coumadin delays clotting by inhibiting
    prothrombin synthesis
  • Heparin delays clotting by inhibiting
    conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
  • Drug called tissue plasminogen
    activator (TPA or tPA) used to dissolve
    clots that have already formed
104
Q

expand on prothrombin time test

A
  • Used to regulate dosage of anticoagulant
    drugs
  • Calcium and thromboplastin added to a
    tube of patient’s plasma and a tube of
    control solution
  • Timed to see how long clotting takes and
    compared to see if drug dosage needs to
    be adjusted
  • Highly variable results among labs have
    required the use of the INR (International
    Normalized Ratio) system, which uses a
    calculation to standardize measurements
105
Q

what is a thrombus

A

staitionary blood clot

106
Q

what is a embolus

A

Circulating blood clot (TPA
used to dissolve clots that have already
formed)

107
Q

expand on hemophilia

A
  • X-linked inherited disorder that results from
    inability to produce factor VIII (a plasma
    protein) responsible for blood clotting
  • Most serious “bleeding disease” worldwide;
    hemophilia A most common form
108
Q

what are the signs and symptoms of hemophilia

A

Characterized by easy bruising, deep muscle
hemorrhage, blood in urine, and repeated episodes
of bleeding into joints causing pain and deformity

109
Q

what is the treatment for hemophilia

A

Treatment includes administration of factor VIII,
injury prevention, and avoiding drugs such as
aspirin that alter the clotting mechanism

110
Q

what is thrombocyopenia caused by

A
  • Most common cause is bone marrow
    destruction by drugs, chemicals, radiation,
    and diseases such as cancer, lupus, and
    HIV/AIDS
  • Caused by reduced platelet counts
111
Q

what is thrombocytopenia characterized by

A

Characterized by bleeding from small blood
vessels, most visibly as purpura (purplish
spots) in the skin and mucous membranes

112
Q

expand on the platelet count in thrombocytopenia

A

Platelet count below 20,000/mm3 may cause
catastrophic bleeding (normal platelet count
150,000 to 400,000/mm3)

113
Q

what is the treatment in thrombocytopenia

A

Treatment may involve transfusion of
platelets, corticosteroid-type drugs

114
Q

expand on vitamin k deficiency

A
  • Necessary to make several clotting
    factors
  • Vitamin K mostly produced by bacteria
    in intestines, where it is absorbed into
    bloodstream
  • Infants may lack bacteria to produce
    enough vitamin K for normal clotting

Anamtomy & Physiology (11 decks)

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