Unit 2 Adrenal Gland and Stress Flashcards
What are the adrenal glands?
They are a pair of small glands that sit on the kidneys, like baseball hats.
The adrenal glands are split into how many regions?
Two regions
What are the two regions of the Adrenal Glands?
Outer layer: Adrenal Cortex
Inner layer: Adrenal Medulla
How many hormones does the Adrenal Medulla release?
Releases two hormones
What are the two hormones that the Adrenal Medulla release?
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
What is Epinephrine formally known as?
Adrenalin
What is Norepinephrine?
It is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter
What do the two hormones that were released by the Adrenal Medulla do to the sympathetic system?
These hormones increase the duration of the effects on our sympathetic nervous system.
Do the effects of hormones last longer or shorter than neurotransmitters on our sympathetic nervous system?
The effects of hormones on our sympathetic nervous system last longer than a neurotransmitter.
What effects do Epinephrine and Norepinephrine have on the human body?
Effects include increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, along with profuse (많은, 다량의) sweating and a dry mouth.
What causes dry mouth?
(One of the effects of Epinephrine and norepinephrine on the human body)
It shuts down the production of our salivary glands because salivation is the first part of digestion. We’re no longer resting and digesting when we’re in sympathetic, which gives us the dry mouth.
What would we refer to these effects of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine on the human body in receptor wise?
Cholinergic.
Anticholinergics often have dry mouth side effects with it.
What type of based hormones is the Adrenal Cortex making?
Steroid Based Hormones which can enter the cell.
Which other area makes Steroid Based Hormones?
Reproductive organs
What are the steroid based hormones known collectively as?
adrenocorticosteroids
what are the adrenocorticosteriods released under?
They are released under the direct stimulation of the anterior pituitary, which is our HPA axis.
What does the HPA axis control directly?
HPA axis is not controlling our Medulla. It directly controls our cortex.
Why are adrenocorticosteroids so important?
These hormones are so important that a decrease in production could be fatal 치명적인 relatively quickly.
Each of adrenocorticosteroids or steroid-based hormones has a specific function. What are the functions?
Regulation of Fluids or Fluid Balance
Electrolytes
Blood sugar
Reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
cell metabolism
growth
Immune system function
What based hormone is our sex hormones?
Steroid based hormone
What does Prednisone mimic?
Prednisone mimics our adrenocortical job.
What is Prednisone and when is it used?
Prednisone is a steroid that we can give somebody to treat inflammation, organ rejection, and immune system disorders.
Why do we use Prednisone for immune disorders and organ rejection?
Because our steroid-based hormones, our cortisol-based hormones, really shut down and inhibit our immune system.
What high side effects do prednisone or prescription steroids have?
Although we can use them to make someone feel better, it has these really high side effects of bone loss, weight gain, hair growth, fat deposits, and delayed wound healing.
What does Prednisone do to our blood sugar level?
Prednisone can jump our blood sugar levels up quite a bit.
What can Prednisone mimic if someone use it for a long time?
Prednisone can mimic diabetes if someone takes it for a long time.
Why can’t we stop or discontinue Prednisone suddenly?
Because the body is saying I don’t need to produce my adrenal corticoid steroid. I’m taking a replacement for it. So we have to slowly taper it down so that the body has time to ramp up its production of its own adrenal corticoid steroid.
What is the Adrenal Gland?
Paired, pyramid-shaped organs top of the kidneys.
What is the Adrenal cortex itself made of, and what does it do?
Three layers of glandular tissue that synthesize and secrete several different hormones.
What is the Adrenal Medulla made of?
Nervous system tissue that is part of the sympathetic nervous system.
So Medulla is like this nervous system tissue that deals with epinephrine and norepinephrine.
How many hormones does the Adrenal Cortex produce and what are they called collectively?
The Adrenal Cortex produces 24 different hormones collectively called corticosteroids or adrenocorticosteroids.
What based hormones are the 24 hormones that are produced by the Adrenal Cortex?
Steroid-based hormones which can directly go into the cell, and they’re able to directly influence the DNA of it.
Are steroid based hormones stored in the cell?
No, they are not.
What does the steroid hormones’ rate of release depend on?
Rate of release depends on rate of synthesis.
How many layers are there in the Adrenal Cortex?
Three layers
What do the three layers of cortical cells produce?
They produce the different corticosteroids.
What are the three layers of the Adrenal Cortex? From superficial to deep
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
What specific corticosteroids do the three layers of Adrenal Cortex produce?
Put them on the cheat sheet
Zona glomerulosa–Mineralocorticoids
Zona fasciculata–Glucocorticoids
Zona reticularis–Gonadocorticoids
What do the Mineralocorticoids produced by the Adrenal Cortex regulate?
Mineralocorticoids regulate electrolyte concentrations primarily Sodium and Potassium.
Mott said Hey, this is where the adrenal cortex is. It deals with electrolytes.
What is the importance of the Sodium in the Mineralocorticoids section?
Sodium affects ECF volume, blood volume, blood pressure, and levels of other ions. We need to keep it leveled so we have adequate 충분한 blood pressure control.
What is the importance of the Potassium in the Mineralocorticoids section?
Potassium sets the resting membrane potential of cells.
Mott: So we have Sodium and potassium, both important things being regulated by mineralocorticoids.
What is Aldosterone?
It is our most potent mineralocorticoid.
Potent: (사람의 심신에 미치는 영향이) 강한
What system is Aldosterone part of?
Rass system
What two things does Aldosterone Stimulate?
Stimulates Sodium reabsorption at the kidneys.
Stimulates Potassium elimination at the kidneys.
What is the net effect of Aldosterone?
It’s going to increase blood volume and blood pressure.
What kind of control of blood pressure does the Aldosterone cause?
It is part of our long-term maintenance, our long-term control of blood pressure.
Mott: So we have these three mechanisms of blood pressure control that’s relatively rapid, rapid, and long-term control. This Raas system, in particular, Aldosterone, is dealing with this long-term blood pressure control of balancing sodium and potassium levels, to balance blood volume, and in balancing blood volume, we balance cardiac output and then balance our blood pressure.
Are the effects of aldosterone long-lived or short lived?
Short-lived
What does the Aldosterone stimulate?
It stimulates the synthesis and activation of sodium potassium transport pumps.
What does the sodium-potassium transport pumps do?
The pump exchanges sodium for potassium.
What are the factors that regulate aldosterone secretion?
RAAS System
Plasma concentration of Potassium
ACTH
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Mott: Just know that RAAS system is going influence Aldosterone
Mott: Other components of regulation are more of our humoral components. Things that are in the blood. Ion levels are in the blood. We’re thinking about how aldosterone is stimulated. It has some hormonal proportion, but it also has this other proportion of humoral of the ion levels in the blood.
What does RAAS system stand for?
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
What does the RAAS system stimulate, and where does it stimulate?
Decreased blood pressure stimulates special cells in the kidneys.
Mott: We have all these cells in our kidneys that are able to sense how much pressure is coming by and the kidneys need to sense how much pressure is coming by because they are relatively sensitive cells. They are not the strongest cells in the body. If the pressure is too high, we can damage the cells inside. So the kidneys are quite a job at saying this is what the pressure is. I need to regulate it so I don’t get harm as the kidney.
As the blood pressure is coming by, it’s saying, Oh, we have an issue here. I’m going to release some renin into the blood.
What do the special cells in the kidneys release?
These cells release renin into the blood.
After the special cells in the kidneys release renin into the blood, what happens after?
Renin then takes off part of our plasma protein called angiotensinogen, which triggers enzyme cascade (it deals with the lungs), resulting in conversion to angiotensin II.
The conversion from the plasma of Aldosterone from angiotensin to angiotensin 2 occurs in our lungs.
When the angiotensin is converted to angiotensin II, what does angiotensin II do?
Angiotensin II can stimulate this aldosterone release.
Mott: what we have to know for the exam
Kidneys are sensitive to blood pressure
Kidneys need to influence blood pressure
They influence blood pressure via renin
Renin then is going to indirectly influence aldosterone via Angiotensin.
Mott:
Plasma concentration of Potassium. So we are talking about the things that can influence Aldosterone. Renin in the Angiotensin can influence it.
Plasma concentration of Potassium:
Increased potassium directly influences what to happen?
Increased Potassium directly influences zona glomerulosa cells to release aldosterone.
If increased potassium directly stimulates aldosterone release, what does a low level of potassium do?
High levels potassium directly stimulate aldosterone release. Low levels inhibit aldosterone release.
What hormone is ACTH?
Pituitary hormone
What can ACTH cause to aldosterone?
ACTH can cause small increases of aldosterone during periods of increased stress.
Mott: During a stressful situation, we see a slight rise in blood pressure. It’s this slight inhibition.
What is Atrial natriuretic peptide secreted by and why?
ANP is secreted by the heart in response to high blood pressure.
What Does Atrial natriuretic peptide do?
It blocks renin and aldosterone secretion to decrease blood pressure.
Mott: Our heart is going to secrete ANP in response to high blood pressure. So if your blood pressure is high, your heart is going to secrete a peptide into the blood, and this is going to block renin and block aldosterone.
So the kidney could be like hey, I am really not happy with these pressure levels. I want these pressure levels a little bit higher.
But heart can kinda be like I am going to override you because the pressure levels are high enough right now. Sorry, kidney, my heart beating is a lot more important than going to pee right now. If the heart dies, we die immediately, but once all the kidneys die, we can survive a bit longer.
So the heart can override what’s going on by releasing this ANP and response to high blood pressure. We kinda say stop what you’re doing, aldosterone; blood pressure has gotten high enough release and lower back down the blood pressure.
What do the Glucocorticoids influence?
They influence the metabolism of most cells and help us resist stressors.
What is the job of Glucocorticoids?
Their job is to keep blood glucose levels relatively constant.
What is an another job of Glucocorticoids?
It also helps maintain pressure by increasing the action of vasoconstrictors.
Mott: So our mineralocorticoids aldosterone is really working on the volume levels of blood to maintain blood pressure.
Our Glucocorticoids are really working more on this peripheral stimulation of arteries to up blood pressure.
What is the only glucocorticoid in significant amounts in humans?
Cortisol (hydrocortisone)
Mott:
Aldosterone is the one that we wanna walk away with mineralocorticoids.
Cortisol is the one that we wanna walk away with Glucocorticoids.
When is cortisol released?
Cortisol is released in response to ACTH.
Mott:
So ACTH is going to say bump blood pressure a little bit. ACTH is also going to be saying bump cortisol levels a little bit.
ACTH is going to be most likely highest in the morning because cortisol is going to be the highest in the morning.
When is ACTH released?
ACTH is released in response to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
When is corticotropin-releasing hormone released?
CRH is released in response to low cortisol levels.
As the cortisol levels increase, what is it going to happen after?
It’s going to come back and inhibit both ACTH and CRH through negative feedback.
Mott:
So we have low blood volumes of cortisol. The brain says I need to bump up cortisol. As the cortisol comes up, the cortisol says You are good; stop releasing the hormones to tell me to release via negative feedback loop.
What are the Cortisol secretion cycles governed by?
Cortisol secretion cycles are governed by patterns of eating and activity.
That’s really our sleep-wake cycle that is governing it.
What can interrupt cortisol rhythm?
Acute격심한 stress (infection, physical or emotional trauma)
Mott: acute stress can override the sleep-wake cycle, the cortisol rhythm.
What can override cortisol inhibition of ACTH and CRH, and what does this lead to?
CNS can override cortisol inhibition of ACTH and CRH, leading to more cortisol secretion.
What does Cortisol do to our body?
Cortisol causes an increase in blood glucose levels, fatty acids, and amino acids.
What mimics cortisol?
prednisone
Why is an acute stress cortisol so important?
Because it helps to mobilize metabolism so it’s available for us to be ready to do fight or flight.
What is the prime metabolic effect of Cortisol?
The prime metabolic effect is gluconeogenesis, which is the formation of glucose from fats and proteins.
What does the cortisol encourage cells to use and why?
Encourages cells to use fatty acids for fuel so glucose is saved for brain.
What is the other function of Cortisol?
Another function is to enhance vasoconstriction
What does vasoconstriction cause, and why does it happen? (function of cortisol)
Vasoconstriction causes a rise in blood pressure to quickly distribute nutrients to the cells.
Mott:
So it’s not saying I’m doing this rise in blood pressure as part of blood pressure maintenance. But it’s doing this rise in blood pressure so we can get glucose through the body as fast as possible.
(Actions of cortisol)
What can excessive levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) cause?
Excessive levels of cortisol can depress the formation of cartilage and bone.
What can excessive levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) cause except depressing the formation of cartilage and bone formation?
Excessive levels of glucocorticoids can inhibit inflammation 염증 by decreasing the release of inflammatory chemicals.
What can excessive levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) depress except the formation of cartilage and bone?
Excessive levels of glucocorticoids can depress the immune system.
What can excessive levels of glucocorticoids disrupt?
It can disrupt normal cardiovascular, neural, and gastrointestinal functions.
What symptoms can Glucocorticoid drugs control?
Do they have side effects?
Glucocorticoid drugs, things like prednisone, can control symptoms of many inflammatory diseases (arthritis allergies) 관절염.
But it can also cause undesirable side effects like impacting bone formation and bone health.
Mott:
so we saw one layer dealing with blood pressure, aldosterone
One layer deals with cortisol
And the deepest layer is our adrenal sex hormone
What kind of hormones are Gonadocorticoids?
Adrenal sex hormone
So we have sex hormones in our sex organs or our reproductive organs. But where else are our sex hormones located?
We also have sex hormones inside our adrenal glands.
What kind of sex hormones are located in the Adrenal Gland, and what can they convert to?
Weak androgens (male sex hormones) and converted to testosterone in tissue cells, some to estrogens.
What is the example of hormones that can be converted to testosterone in tissue cells and some to estrogens?
Androstenedione and DHEA can be converted to testosterone in the peripheral
What can Gonadocorticoids (adrenal sex hormones) contribute to? Three things
They can contribute to the onset of puberty and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics.
Sex drive in women
Source of estrogens in postmenopausal (갱년기) women
Mott:
So premenopausal ovaries are really doing the production of estrogen in women. However in Postmenopausal, estrogen is coming from the adrenal cortex.
Males, estrogen is coming from our adrenal cortex.
Females, testosterone is coming from our adrenal cortex.
What does Hypersecretion of adrenal gland cause?
Adrenogenital syndrome (masculinization)
Is the adrenogenital syndrome noticeable in adult males?
No, because they are already masculinized with testosterone.
So where is adrenogenital syndrome noticeable?
Females and prepubertal males
What are the effects of adrenogenital syndrome on prepubertal males?
Reproductive organs mature; secondary sex characteristics emerge early
What are the effects of adrenogenital syndrome on females?
Beard, masculine pattern of body hair
Clitoris resembles small penis
What do the Medullary chromaffin cells that are located in the Adrenal Medulla do?
Medullary chromaffin cells synthesize catecholamines epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%)
What system does catecholamines deal with?
Sympathetic nervous system
What are the effects of catecholamines?
Not too many questions on them because we had them last semester. but….
Vasoconstriction
Increased heart rate
Increased blood glucose levels
Blood diverted to brain, heart, and skeletal muscle
Do both hormones in the Adrenal Medulla have same effects or different effects?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine have basically same effects.
Although both hormones in the Adrenal Medulla have basically the same effects, what is slightly different?
Epinephrine is more of a stimulator of metabolic activities.
Norepinephrine is more of a stimulator of peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure.
Mott: So norepinephrine we can think about as more active on the peripheral body.
Epinephrine is typically more active on the central body things like heart and lungs.
What are some examples of epinephrine as more of a stimulator of metabolic activities?
Bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles and heart.
How are the responses of hormones of the Adrenal Medulla different from Adrenal cortical hormones>
Their responses to stressors are brief, unlike adrenal cortical hormones where they have slightly longer response time.
From here on, it is the parts that he said to study for the exam……
What is the Adrenal Gland made up of?
Adrenal Medulla
Adrenal Cortex
What does the Adrenal Cortex produce?
It produces steroid hormones, including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and adrenal androgens.
What does the Adrenal Medulla produce?
catecholamines which are epinephrine and norepinephrine.
How can we remember the layers of the Adrenal Cortex?
“The deeper you go, the sweeter you get.”
glomerulosa: salt (mineralocorticoids)
Fasciculata: sugar (cortisol)
Retcularis: sex (androgens)
What is the main hormone of the Mineralocorticoids?
Aldosterone
What does the Aldosterone do?
Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to increase sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion.
(So sodium goes up, potassium goes out of the body.)
What is the net effect when Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to increase sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion?
It increases the blood pressure.
What is the main hormone of the Glucocorticoids?
Cortisol
What does the Cortisol do?
Cortisol is going to increase in response to stress and is essential for maintaining blood pressure.
Why is cortisol essential for maintaining blood pressure?
Because it increases the sensitivity of vascular smooth muscle to vasoconstrictors like catecholamines.
Mott: Because it increases the sensitivity of vascular smooth muscle to vasoconstrictors like catecholamines.
This is why we see these go hand in hand with our stress. It helps to make the peripheral body more sensitive to catecholamines. It’s not directly saying Hey, contract out here. Rather, it is helping to make it more sensitive to our catecholamines.
What is converted to testosterone or estrogens in the Androgens? (Periphery)
DHEA
What are some DHEA also converted to?
Androstenedione.
Why is DHEA important?
Important in puberty for both males and females and is the main source of circulating testosterone in females.
Mott: DHEA is also important in that kind of kickstart of puberty. It’s saying yes, let’s start puberty, let’s kick this off.
what is the body’s stress hormone?
Cortisol
Mott: Cortisol is what’s responding to emotional stress. It is what’s responding to physical stress. It is what’s responding to internal environment stress. Such as when we are sick, when we have an injury on the bottom.
Overall, it’s a good thing for the body. It’s part of our sleep-wake cycle and helps us feel awake in the morning.
It’s also part of responding to an acute stress situation. However, in a chronic stress situation, it can start to go unchecked and unregulated.
What can the loss of regulation of cortisol lead to?
Loss of regulation can lead to cortisol excess disorders, such as Cushing syndrome, or if we have cortical insufficiency, we can have diseases like Addison’s disease.
Mott: if we have final exams and so many other things to do, Cortisol is what’s helping us get through it.
What does the cortisol suppress?
Cortisol suppresses the immune system.
What does cortisol do regarding metabolism?
Regarding metabolism, cortisol increases gluconeogenesis and decreases peripheral glucose uptake.
(It’s basically saying we want more glucose for the brain)
What happens when cortisol increases gluconeogenesis and decreases peripheral glucose uptake?
We oppose the actions of insulin, and the net effect is an increase in serum glucose (blood levels of glucose)
What does cortisol do to growth?
It inhibits growth
What happens when cortisol inhibits growth?
Cortisol is going to lead to muscle atrophy, increased bone resorption, and thinning of the skin.
Muscle atrophy: is the loss or shrinking of muscle mass.
What does cortisol do to the immune system?
Cortisol shuts down the immune system.
What is happening when cortisol shuts down the immune system?
Cortisol shuts down the immune system by causing apoptosis of proinflammatory T cells and suppressing B cell antibody production.
Lastly, cortisol also reduces neutrophil migration during inflammation.
Mott: So it is saying T-cells you are dead, B-cells you gotta take a break from what you are doing.
Are we talking about good stress response of cortisol or bad stress response of cortisol?
Healthy stress response
What does stress lead to?
Stress leads to Sympathetic nervous system activation.
After stress leads to SNS activation, what happens after?
Amygdala sends a stress signal to the hypothalamus, and the adrenal glands release a surge of catecholamines, such as epinephrine.
After the release of catecholamines, what does it essentially initiate?
It essentially initiates our fight or flight response.
What if the body continues to perceive the stimuli as a threat, what happens?
The hypothalamus activates the HPA axis.
What happens when the hypothalamus activates the HPA axis?
The hypothalamus activates the HPA axis, then cortisol is released from the adrenal cortex, and in the acute component of it, it helps us stay on high alert by increasing our body levels of glucose and we have more energy.
Mott: So essentially, acute stress, first thing we turn on fight or flight response. If that stress response is going to continue, if it’s going to outlive our fight or flight response, we then use cortisol to bump up our glucose levels so we can stay on high alert and have a higher level of energy.
What does glucose also work on?
Glucose also works on protein homeostasis.
Where does the cortisol increase the availability of blood glucose to?
To the brain.
Mott: Cortisol kinda says, hey, I care about keeping the brain alive, screw the rest of the body. Brain gets some glucose, rest of the body figure it out. Deal wtih fatty acids to keep yourself alive.
Where does cortisol act on? (which parts of the body)
Cortisol acts on the liver, muscle, adipose tissue, and pancreas.
What effects does cortisol have on liver?
At the liver, cortisol increases gluconeogenesis and decreases glycogen synthesis.
What effects does cortisol have on muscles?
At the muscles, cortisol decreases glucose uptake and consumption and increases protein degradation.
Mott: At the muscles, it says, Sorry, we are going to decrease glucose at the muscles so that the brain can use it instead. And then we are going to start to cause some lipolysis, which is a catabolic process that uses some energy to release our fatty acids at the body. So we can use these in deoxidation as a component of glucose.
What effects does cortisol have on adipose tissues?
Cortisol increases lipolysis. Lipolysis is a catabolic process that results in the release of glycerol and free fatty acids. These fatty acids can be used in B oxidation and as an energy source for other cells as they continue to produce glucose.
What effects does cortisol have on the pancreas?
Cortisol makes the pancreas to decrease insulin and increase glucagon.
So overall, cortisol enhances the activity of glucagon, epinephrine, and other catecholamines in the pancreas.
What is Addison’s disease?
Autoimmune destruction of all three layers of the adrenal cortex.
It causes a decrease in the production of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and steroids.
What is an example of hypercortisolism?
Cushing’s disease
What is hypersecretion?
Cushing’s disease
What does hypersecretion- Cushing’s disease depress?
It depresses cartilage and bone formation, as well as the immune system. It also inhibits inflammation and disrupts neural, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal function.
What are the causes of Cushing’s disease or hypersecretion?
Tumor on pituitary, lungs, pancreas, kidney, or adrenal cortex
Overuse of corticosteroids
What are the signs of Cushing’s disease?
Moon face and buffalo hump
How can we treat Cushing’s disease?
Removal or tumor, and discontinuation of drugs.
What does Hyposecretion-Addison’s disease usually involve?
It usually involves deficits in both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
What does Addison’s disease cause?
Decrease in plasma glucose and sodium levels
What are common in Addison’s disease?
Weight loss, severe dehydration, and hypotension.
What are the treatments of Addison’s disease?
Corticosteroid replacement therapy
What are the early signs of Addison’s disease?
Characteristic bronzing of the skin due to high levels of ACTH which triggers melanin production in melanocytes.
Why is cortisol important in Acute Stress Response?
Cortisol secretion during an acute stress response serves to
mobilize glucose reserves for energy
inhibit pain and non-vital organ systems
Promote an adaptive fight-or-flight response.
What is the big job of cortisol?
To mobilize glucose.
Remember that cortisol increases glucose levels and is also anti-inflammatory.
In Acute Stress Response, what can cortisol facilitate?
It may facilitate the formation of a fear-based memory conditioned to elicit 끌어내다 a sensitized fight-or-flight response to promote survival and avoidance of future threat.
What happens to cortisol in Chronic Stress Response?
Cortisol fails to function. Most of the time, we have high levels of cortisol in Chronic Stress response.
What is Chronic Stress response?
It is an unmodulated 조절되지 않은 inflammatory response to physical pathogens 병원균 or physical stressors, unrecognized proteins, or psychological stressors.
What has long-term stress been shown to do?
Long-term stress has been shown to change the cortisol awakening response (how active our cortisol awakening is), which contributes to morning fatigue, morning pain, and inflammation.
Where is Chronic Stress implicated in?
(나쁜 것의) 원인임을 보여주다[시사하다]
They are implicated in diseases such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, myopathy, etc.
What are the signs and symptoms of stress-induced cortisol dysfunction?
They include bone and muscle breakdown, fatigue, depression, pain, memory impairments, sodium-potassium dysregulation, orthostatic hypotension, and impaired pupillary light reflex.
What does stress do to Catecholamines?
It stimulates the pituitary-adrenal axis, and it is associated with the release of catecholamines.
What is the stimulation of the pituitary-adrenal axis that is associated with the release of catecholamines going to cause? (Stress on Catecholamines)
This is going to cause increased cardiac output, which is going to make the blood pressure go up, skeletal muscle blood flow, sodium retention, and reduced intestinal mobility.
What can acute stress do to Vasopressin?
Acute stress leads to the rapid release of vasopressin.
What can Vasopressin stimulate?
It can stimulate the secretion of ACTH from the pituitary gland
What can stress do to Gonadotropins?
It essentially suppresses the circulating gonadotropins and gonadal steroid hormones, leading to disruption of the normal menstrual cycle.
What can prolonged exposure to stress do to Gonadotropins?
Prolonged exposure to stress can lead to complete impairment of reproductive function.
What can stress do to the thyroid hormones?
The function is usually down-regulated during stressful conditions
What happens to growth hormone during acute physical stress?
Growth hormones level is increased during acute physical stress.
What can stress do to Insulin?
May decrease during stress.
Stress-induced hyperglycemia
Hyperthyroidism
Relationship between stressful life events and the onset of Graves’ disease
Diabetes
Severe stress is one of the risk factors
Gonadal dysfunction
Stress can lead to anovulation. So, it can essentially shut down our menstrual cycle. In males, it is going to decrease sperm count.
Psychosocial dwarfism
Child Abuse example.
Obesity
Mental stress leads to chronic activation of the neuroendocrine systems, and cortisol favors central fat deposition.
