Mott Final Flashcards
(667 cards)
1
Q
Median Plane
A
Divides the body right in the middle into right and left
2
Q
Sagittal Plane
A
Divides the body into left and right (anywhere)
3
Q
Frontal (coronal) Plane
A
Divides the body into front and back
4
Q
transverse Plane
A
Divides the body into upper and lower portions around the umbilical region
5
Q
Bilateral
A
Both sides
6
Q
Unilateral
A
One side
7
Q
Ipsilateral
A
Same side
8
Q
Contralateral
A
opposite side
9
Q
Abduction
A
Away from the midline of the body
10
Q
Adduction
A
Towards the midline of the body
11
Q
Ventral Cavity consists of what cavities?
A
Thoracic, Abdominopelvic cavity
12
Q
Dorsal Cavity consists of what cavities?
A
Cranial cavity, spinal cavity
13
Q
What are cavities?
A
Large spaces that hold and protect organs
14
Q
Tell me the 9 body regions from right upper to left lower
A
Right hypochondriac region,
Epigastric region,
Left hypochondriac region,
Right lumbar region,
Umbilical region,
Left lumbar region,
Right inguinal (iliac) region,
Hypogastric region,
Left inguinal (iliac) region
15
Q
What organs are in the right upper quadrant?
A
Liver, Right Kidney, Gallbladder, some parts of the pancreas, Colon
16
Q
What organs are in the left upper quadrant?
A
Stomach, Most parts of the pancreas, Spleen, Left kidney, Colon,
17
Q
What organs are in the right lower quadrant?
A
Appendix, ureter, Colon, Small intestine, Major artery and vein to the right leg
18
Q
What organs are in the left lower quadrant?
A
Colon, Small intestine, Major artery and vein to the left leg, Ureter
19
Q
List the order from the smallest to biggest, (Cell –>)
A
Atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism (human)
20
Q
What are the two types of cells?
A
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells
21
Q
What is the difference between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells?
A
Eukaryotic cells have a distinct Nucleus and Prokaryotic have no clear nucleus. (Nuclear material is spread out)
22
Q
Function of cell membrane
A
Keep the cell together
Give and maintain shape
separate from surrounding
responsible for allowing materials in and out of the cell (selective permeability)
23
Q
What is the cell membrane made up of?
A
They are mostly made up of lipids
24
Q
What is the cell membrane composed of?
A
Phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins
25
What is special about the phospholipids of the cell membrane?
--It has a hydrophilic head where the phosphate group is negatively charged
--It has a hydrophobic tail where the lipid talks are uncharged
--Head is the outside and tail is inside.
26
What are transmembrane proteins? (Membrane proteins)
Protein that spans the membrane
27
What are receptors? (Membrane proteins)
Proteins found of extracellular surfaces
They selectively binds to specific molecules which translates to a specific reaction within the cell
28
What are channel proteins? (Membrane Proteins)
Allow select materials to pass in and out of the cell
29
What are glycoproteins? (Membrane proteins)
Proteins that have a carbohydrate molecule attached to it
30
What does the carbohydrate molecule do in the glycoprotein?
They work like a "name tag" for the cell,
It helps the cell "introduce itself" to other cells so they can recognize each other.
31
Carbohydrate molecule in the glycoprotein: It helps the cell "introduce itself" to other cells so they can recognize each other. Why is this important?
It is important for processes like the immune system to identify which cells belong in the body and which might be invaders.
32
What are two types of transport methods?
Active and Passive
33
What is Active transport
Requires energy, and it moves solutes from low to high concentration. (against the concentration gradient)
34
What is Passive transport?
Does not require energy and moves solutes from high to low concentration. (Down the concentration gradient)
35
Two types of Passive Transport
Diffusion and Osmosis
36
what is diffusion?
Solutes move from high to low concentration until they become equal.
37
Example of Diffusion
Moves oxygen from lungs to blood
CO2 from blood to lungs and eventually to outside air
38
What is Osmosis?
Movement of water from high to low concentration through a selective permeable
39
What does osmotic pressure do?
When there's a difference in solute concentration on two sides of a membrane, water moves to "dilute the higher concentration.
40
Definition of Osmotic pressure
It is the pulling force created by the solutes to attract water to their side
41
What are the three types of Solutions?
Hypertonic
Hypotonic
Isotonic
42
What is hypertonic Solution?
Water rushes out of the cell, and the cell will shrink
More solute outside the cell
43
What is hypotonic Solution?
Water rushes into the cell, and the cell will burst
More solute inside the cell
44
What is Isotonic solution?
Equal amount of solute inside and outside the cell
45
What is filtration in passive transport?
Selective process, only solutes that can fit through the membrane will pass through
46
What is facilitated diffusion?
Diffusion in which a protein channel helps a substance move across the membrane.
47
What do the protein channels or carriers do in facilitated diffusion?
They act like doors to help larger or polar molecules across the membrane.
48
Diffusion is for>>>>
small, non-polar molecules across the cell membrane.
49
Facilitated diffusion is for>>>>
Large, polar molecules
50
What are two types of active transport?
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
51
What is Endocytosis?
In take of liquid and solid particles too large to cross the cell membrane
52
What is Exocytosis?
Transport out of the cell
53
How does Endocytosis bring in stuff into the cell?
Cell membrane will surround a small portion of the substance creating a vesicle
54
How does exocytosis transport stuff out of the cell?
Vesicle is moved towards the cell membrane to excel a substance
55
What is cytoplasm made of?
Water, salts and different organic molecules
56
Why do cells need cytoplasm?
Cells need cytoplasm for their internal environment for cell organelles to thrive and function
57
Function of Nucleus
Contains all of the cell's chromosomes
58
Function of Nucleolus
To produce and assemble the cell's ribosomes
59
Does Nucleolus have chromosomes?
No, because the nucleus has all the chromosomes
60
What is the other function of the Nucleolus? (Movement)
They shuttle ribosomes and ribosomal RNAs out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs
61
Function of DNA
Carries genetic information for the development and function of an organism (human)
62
How is RNA different from DNA
DNA is double helix, but RNA is single strand
63
What does mRNA do?
Protein synthesis
64
What does rRNA do?
It is the structural components of the ribosome
65
Function of Rough ER
Responsible for protein synthesis and they are lined with ribosome (ribosomes are present)
66
Function of Smooth ER
Produces Lipids and steroids (no ribosomes present)
67
Which ER has ribosomes?
Rough ER
68
What is ribosomes made of?
RNA
69
Function of Ribosomes
Produce enzymes and proteins for cell repair and reproduction (make proteins)
70
What happens wehn Ribosome read the mRNA?
Ribosomes reads the mRNA sequence and It translates that genetic code into a specified string of amino acids, which grow into long chains that fold to form proteins.
71
What is the ribosome docking station for?
For tRNA that contains the amino acid that will then become part of the growing polypeptide chain, which eventually becomes the protein.
72
What do centrosomes contain?
Centrioles
73
What are centrioles involved in and what do they do?
Centrioles are involved in cell division and create the spindles used in cell division
74
Function of Mitochondria
Producer of ATP and is also involved in Apoptosis.
Cells that are more active will have more mitochondria.
75
How is the ATP produced?
Through Cellular respiration
76
Why can't our body use the energy from the food we consume directly?
Because only food converted glucose can be used by cells.
77
What does glucose combine with, and where/what is it transformed t?
Glucose combines with oxygen and is transformed in the mitochondria into ATP.
78
During Cellular respiration, what is released when glucose is burned?
Glucose is burned in the presence of oxygen and makes water, Carbon Dioxide and lots of energy.
79
What happens when glucose is used up and energy is amde?
Carbon dioxide and water are made as waste products.
80
What do we need to make energy for the cells?
We must have glucose (from food) and abundant oxygen.
81
Why do we breathe? (related to cellular respiration)
Because we need to bring in oxygen to make energy and we need to exhale to get rid of the waste product CO2.
82
What is point of cellular respiration?
It is to make energy in the form of ATP
83
What is ATP made up of?
Base, sugar, and three phosphate groups
84
What is the function of the three phosphate groups?
They are held together by high-energy bonds and when a bond is broken, a high level of energy is realeased.
85
What happens to ATP when a bond is used up?
ATP becomes ADP which only has two phosphate groups`
86
What does ADP do after becoming ADP from ATP?
It can pick up another phosphate and form a high-energy bond so energy is stored and the process can begin again.
87
What happens during Glycolysis?
It partially breaks down a 6-carbon glucose molecule into 2, 3 carbon molecules of pyruvate and 2 net ATP
88
Where does Glycolysis occur?
In the cytoplasm
89
Does glycolysis need oxygen?
No
90
What does Transition Reaction do?
Transition Reaction connects glycolysis to the Krebs cycle
91
Where do the pyruvates enter and why does it have to?
The pyruvates must first enter mitochondria because the transition reaction and Krebs cycle happen in the matrix of mitochondria
92
What does the Krebs cycle do?
It completes the oxidation of glucose by taking pyruvates from glycolysis.
It breaks down the pyruvates into Carbon dioxide molecules and water molecules and generates additional ATP.
93
Where does krebs cycle occur?
Matrix of mitochondria
94
What is Anaerobic Respiration?
Breakdown sugars and produce energy without oxygen
95
Where does Anaerobic Respiration occur?
In the cytoplasm
96
Difference between Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic produce less energy, without oxygen.
Aerobic produces more energy, with oxygen.
97
Example of Anaerobic Respiration
Excercise really hard and muscles run out of oxygen
98
What is Aerobic Respiration?
Breakdown sugars and produce energy with oxygen
99
Where does Aerobic respiration happen?
Mitochondria
100
Example of Aerobic respiration
Normal breathing
101
Function of Golgi Apparatus
Packages and transport proteins
102
Where does Golgi Apparatus receive proteins from?
From the ER
Receives proteins from the ER --> Surrounds with a vesicle and secretes the protein (exocytosis)
103
Function of Lysosomes
Garbage disposal of the cell
Cleans up intracellular debris and waste through hydrolytic enzymes
104
What are the four macromolecules?
Carbs
Lipids
Protein
Nucleic acid
105
Types of Carbs (sugar)
Monosaccharides (simple sugars) Glucose
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
106
What are simple carbs?
One or more sugars (monosaccharides or disaccharides) combined in a simple structure.
107
When are simple carbs used?
These are easily used for energy, causing a rapid rise in blood sugar and insulin secretion from the pancreas.
108
Examples of simple carbs
Candy, carbonated beverages,
corn syrup, fruit juice, honey, table sugar
109
What are complex carbs?
Three or more sugars bonded together in a more complex chemical structure.
110
Effects of Complex carbs
Complex carbs take longer to digest and, therefore, have a more gradual effect on the increase in blood sugar.
111
Examples of Complex carbs
Apples, broccoli, lentils, spinach, unrefined whole grains, brown rice
112
Two types of complex carbs
Starches and Fiber
113
What are starches (Polysaccharides)?
Starches are complex carbs that contain a large number of glucose molecules
114
What produces Starches (Polysaccharides) (examples)
Potatoes, chickpeas, pasta, and wheat
115
What are Fibers?
They are non-digestible complex carbs that encourage healthy bacterial growth in the colon and act as a bulking agent, easing defecation.
116
Two types of Fibers
Insoluble and soluble
117
Function of Insoluble Fibers
Absorbs water in the intestines and softening and bulking stool.
118
What are the benefits of Insoluble fibers?
Regularity of bowel movements and a decreased risk of diverticulosis
119
Function of Soluble Fibers
It helps decrease blood cholesterol and LDL levels (bad cholesterol), reduces straining with defecation
120
Examples of Soluble Fibers
Fleshy fruit, oats, broccoli, and dried beans
121
What do all carbs have?
1 carbon
2 hydrogen
1 oxygen
122
Function of Lipids
Energy storage, communication, and protection
123
What are lipids mainly made out of?
Carbon and hydrogen
124
Why are lipids hydrophobic?
Because they don't have oxygen
125
What are saturated lipids at room temp?
They are solid at room temp
126
What are unsaturated lipids at room temp?
Typically liquid at room temp
127
What are steroids?
Cholesterol, a major precursor to many hormones
128
What are proteins made of?
Made of long chain of amino acids
129
Biochemical functions of Proteins
Enzymes and proteins accelerate a reaction as a catalyst to produce or breakdown biological molecules.
130
Structural Functions of proteins
Proteins serve as the structural elements of cells and tissues
131
Nucleic Acids
RNA and DNA
132
What do nucleic acids do?
Controls the activities of the cells
133
What do nucleic acids contain?
They contain our genetic code
134
What is metabolism?
All of the chemical operations going on within our bodies that provide the body with energy
135
What does metabolism need to function?
Nutrients (fuel)
136
What does metabolism produce?
Waste products
137
What are two types of Metabolism?
Anabolism and Catabolism
138
What is anabolism
Simpler compounds are built up and used to make materials for growth, repair, and reproduction.
(Building phase of metabolism) (water is removed)
139
What is Catabolism
Complex substances are broken down into simpler substances.
(Breaking down of substances) (water is added)
140
Carbs Metabolism (what is king)
Glucose is King
141
Carbs metabolism: They are stored in the body as what?
As glycogen until glucose is needed
142
What is glucose metabolized by?
Glycolysis
143
What is carbs metabolism regulated by?
Insulin
144
What are lipid Metabolism stored as in the body?
lipoproteins
145
What are lipid metabolism regulated by?
Insulin
146
What is "Forwards cholesterol metabolism" in lipid metabolism?
Cholesterol into the tissues
-LDL
147
What is "Reverse cholesterol metabolism" in lipid metabolism?
Cholesterol away from peripheral tissue back to the liver
148
Where does essential amino acids obtained from?
Must be obtained from diet since our body cannot produce it.
149
What is amino acid metabolism regulated by?
Cortisol and thyroid hormone
150
What is Cellular reproduction?
Process of making new cells
151
What must be copied before cell division?
All chromosomes
152
Where Eukaryotic cells found?
In the human body
153
What does Eukaryotic cells contain?
nucleus and chromosomes
154
How does Eukaryotic cells reproduce?
It uses mitosis to reproduce asexually
155
What is asexual reproduction?
Cells make identical copies of themselves without other cells
156
What does the cell cycle consist of?
Interphase and Mitotic phase
157
What phase does the cell spent the most time in?
Interphase
158
What happens in interphase?
Performs normal function
prepares for division by copying DNA, making organelles.
159
What is Mitotic phase consist of?
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
160
What is cytokinesis?
Division of the cytoplasm
161
What happens in transcription?
Info is moved from DNA to mRNA
162
What happens in translation?
mRNA is read to produce proteins
163
Why does transcription happen, or why does DNA create mRNA?
DNA holds the instructions for making proteins but dna can't leave the nucleus.
So the cell makes a working copy of the instructions called mRNA which can leave the nucleus
164
Is mRNA an exact copy of the DNA?
Nope
165
Why is Transcription important?
Because the mRNA is a recipe or blue print for maing proteins
166
What is transcription in conclusion?
Transcription makes mRNA from DNA so the instruction can leave the nucleus and be used to make proteins in the cell.
167
Where does Translation occur?
Ribosome
168
What does mRNA do in the translation?
It carries the instructions from the DNA, a recipe that tells the ribosome how to build a protein.
169
How are proteins created?
By putting amino acids in the correct order.
170
What are codons in Translation?
The mRNA instruction are in "words" called codons, which are groups of three letters.
171
What does the codon represent in Translation?
Each codon represents specific amino acid
172
What is translation in conclusion?
It is like following a recipe in the ribosome factory, where mRNA tells the ribosome which amino acids to link together to build a protein.
173
Where are chromosomes located?
Inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells
174
What are chromosomes made of?
Protein and a single molecule of DNA
175
What are gametes?
They are the only human cells that do now contain pairs. (Reproductive cells)
176
How many chromosomes do humans hace?
23 pairs, 46
177
What is only inherited from the egg cell?
Mitochondrial DNA
178
What are centromeres?
Middle part of the chromosome that helps to keep the chromosome properly aligned in preparation for reproduction
179
What is the attachment site for the sister chromatids?
Centromere
180
What are Telomeres?
They are repetitive stretches of DNA located at the ends of the chromosomes
181
What do telomeres lose a bit of during every division?
DNA
182
What is Mitosis?
It is the process of sorting chromosomes
183
What happens in Prophase?
The nucleus disappears, the chromosomes become visible and spindle fibers form.
Centrosomes move towards opposite ends of cell.
184
What happens in Metaphase?
The chromosomes line up in the center of the cells.
185
What happens in Anaphase?
The chromosomes split and the spindle fibers pull them apart.
Sister chromatids break apart and begin moving toward opposite sides.
186
What happens in Telophase?
The chromosomes go to the far ends of the cell, the spindle fibers disappear, and the nuclei reappear.
Formation of 2 daughter nuclei
187
What happens after cytokinesis?
It forms two new identical daughter cells identical to the original mother cell.
188
G1
Cell growth
189
S phase
Cell replicates its genetic material in preparation for mitosis
190
G2
Cell checks duplicated chromosomes
191
What is the shortest stage in Mitosis?
Anaphase
192
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
Cleavage furrow pinches cell in two
193
Mitosis regulation
Checkpoints that stops mitosis if certain conditions are not met
194
G1/S checkpoint
Restriction Checkpoint: Cell size, cell nutrition, DNA damage
195
G2/M checkpoint
DNA replication checkpoint: improper replication or damage
196
Metaphase/Anaphase checkpoint
Spindle Apparatus checkpoint: Attachment of mitotic spindle to all chromosomes
197
Two types of Tumors
Benign and malignant
198
Benign tumor
slow growing, non-life threatening, stays in the same place
199
Malignant tumor
Rapid growing, life-threatening, likely to spread to other tissues or metastasize (spread to other location)
200
Labile Cells
Constantly proliferating
201
Stable/Quiescent Cells
Typically in non-dividing state but can enter cell cycle under specific stimulus
202
Permanent Cells
Unable to proliferate, non-dividing
Ex: Cardiac and skeletal muscle
203
Homeostatsis
Maintenance of internal balance despite changes in the external environment
204
What happens when a person has impaired homeostatsis?
It underlies most disease processes
205
What is diabetes?
Disease of inadequate control of blood sugar (glucose levels in blood)
206
What is Type 1 Diabetes?
Destruction of cells that produce insulin
207
What is Type 2 Diabetes?
Insulin resistance (less responsive to insulin), attributed (causes) to excesses fatty acids
208
What causes the release of mitochondrial proteins into the cell which lead to apoptosis?
Cellular stress (from lack of exercise or increased calories)
209
What causes impairment of the electron transport chain and damage which cell organelle?
Excess calories
Damage to mitochondria
210
Metastasis
Spread of cancer cells from one location to another
211
Why does chemotherapy work on cancer cells?
Because cancer cells lack the ability to repair DNA whereas normal cells can
212
What cells do chemotherapy target?
Both healthy and cancerous cells.
213
Bone is a hard form of what?
Connective tissue
214
What are bones covered by?
Periosteum
215
What does the Periosteum do to the bone?
Nourish the external portion of skeletal tissue
Provide attachment site for ligaments and tendons
216
Two types of bone
Compact and Spongy bone
217
What is compact bone?
Dense, hard, tightly packed tissue
218
Where is compact found?
Found in shafts of long bones called diaphysis and outer layer of other bones
219
What does compact bone contain? (units)
Osteons (haversian systems)
-Mature bone cells (osteocytes) that form concentric circles around a central (Haversian) canal, containing blood vessels.
220
How are spongy bones arranged?
Arranged in bars and plates called trabecular.
221
What makes the spongy bone lighter?
Irregular holes between trabeculae and provide space for red bone marrow, which produces red blood cells.
222
Function of bone
Support
protection
movement
Storage
Blood supply production
223
When does ossification start and finish?
in the embryonic period (8 weeks) and finishes around age 20
224
What are the 4 types of bones?
long
flat
irregular
sesamoid
225
Does the bone have a high level of vascularization and where does blood enter?
Yes, it does.
Blood enters through the nutrient foramina to supply the bone marrow, spongy bone, and deep portions of compact bone.
226
Which part of the bone can sense pain signals and why?
Periosteum, because it is supplied by fibers that carry pain signals.
227
Why can't inside of the bone sense pain?
Because the inside of a bone has limited amount of fibers that can detect pain.
228
What fibers regulate blood flow through the bone marrow?
Vasomotor fibers
229
What are the two main parts of the skeleton?
Axial and appendicular skeleton
230
What is axial skeleton consist of?
Head, neck, ribs, vertebral column
231
What is appendicular skeleton consist of?
arms, legs, hips, and shoulders
232
Nitrogen goes with which macromolecule?
Proteins
233
What bones live on tendons?
Sesamoid bone
234
How many vertebral regions do we have?
7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 3-5 coccygeal
235
How many true ribs and false ribs do we have?
7 true ribs, 5 false ribs, 2 floating ribs
236
When does the spinal curvature change?
As infant learns to hold its head up and begin to walk, curving in the opposite direction.
237
How are both arms and legs attached to the axial skeleton?
They are attached via the pectoral and pelvic girdles
(Pectoral girdle: clavicle and scapula)
(Pelvic girdle: Pelvic bones)
238
What is Cartilage made of?
Dense connective tissue
239
What is a Joint?
articulation between bones
240
What is a ligament?
connects bone to bone
241
What can cartilage do?
It is a special form of dense connective tissue that can withstand a fair amount of flexing, tension, and pressure
Ex: Flexible parts of the nose and ears.
242
What does cartilage act as between bones?
it can act as a cushion between bones.
243
What does articular cartilage on ends of bone acts as?
It acts as a shock absorber, preventing the ends from grinding together.
244
What are three types of joints?
Synovial Joints
Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
245
What are Synovial Joints?
Surrounded by a joint capsule and line with synovial fluid
246
What are fibrous Joints?
Where bones are connected by a dense, tough connective tissue.
247
What type of movement does Fibrous joints provide?
Limited amount of movement
248
What does Cartilaginous joints do?
Give shock absorption as well as flexibility.
249
What are the six types of Synovial Joints?
Plane
Hinge
Saddle
Condyloid
Ball and socket
Pivot
250
What movement do plane joints provide?
Gliding or sliding (Carpal and Tarsal joints)
Gun shooting motion
251
What movement do Hinge joints provide?
Only flexion and Extension movement
Ex: Elbow, knee
252
What movement do saddle joints provide?
Allows movement in 2 planes, opposition movement
Ex: touching your thumb with other digits
253
What movement do Condyloid joints provide?
Flexion and extension, aDDuction and ABduction, circumduction
Ex: Elbow, knuckle joint
254
What movement do Ball and Socket Joints provide?
Movement in all planes
Ex: Shoulder and hip joint
255
What movement do Pivot joints provide?
Rotation
Ex: Rotating your palm forward/backwards, Rotating the neck
256
What is Joint (articulation) necessary for?
Movement
257
Where is the joint located?
It is where two or more bones join together
258
What do ligaments do?
Permit joints to move
259
What are fibrous joints held together by?
Short connective tissue strands
260
Are fibrous joints movable?
They are either immobile or slightly movable
261
Example of Fibrous joint
Sutures in the skull
262
What are cartilaginous joints held together by?
Cartilage
263
Are cartilaginous joints movable?
Either immobile or slightly movable
264
Examples of Cartilaginous joints
Pubic symphysis and joints between the ribs and sternum
265
Are synovial joints movable?
They are freely movable
266
Where is Epiphysis located?
End of a long bone
267
Where is medullary cavity located?
Hollow within the diaphysis that stores yellow marrow
268
what is responsible for the construction of osteoids?
Osteoblasts
269
What are mature osteoblasts responsible for?
Protein synthesis
270
Where are osteoids found?
In areas of new bone formation
271
What builds bone?
Osteoblast
272
What is responsible for reabsorbing mineralized bone?
Osteoclast
273
What is the most abundant bone cell?
Osteocytes
274
What is Osteoclast activated by?
Osteoblast activity
275
What are bone lining cells?
Old osteocytes that no longer play a role in synthesis
276
what is immature bone matrix called?
Osteoid
277
Bone is mostly what type of collagen?
Type 1 collagen
278
What is the bone extracellular matrix made of?
Mostly made of minerals, Calcium, and phosphate.
Gives bone mechanical properties.
279
What are 4 types of bones?
Long
Short
Flat
irregular
280
What is the function of epiphysis of long bones?
Allows attachment site at joints
281
What is the function of metaphysis of long bones?
Attachment site of most tendons
282
What is Epiphyseal plate?
Responsible for longitudinal growth
283
What are short bones primarily consist of?
spongy bone
284
What is flat bone made of?
cortical shell and stiff interior
285
what is the main function of flat bone?
Providing protection or flat surface for attachments
286
What are irregular Bones primarily consist of?
Spongy bone
287
Where are irregular bones located?
Spine
288
What is difference between compact bones and spongy bones?
Compact bones are made up of Osteons (haversian system) and spongy bones are made of Trabeculae
289
What does the compact bone make up?
outer cortex
290
What is spongy bone lined with?
endosteum
291
What is Epiphysis covered with?
Hyaline cartilage
292
What is the outer wall of diaphysis composed of?
Dense hard compact bone
293
What happens when a person has a low calcium level?
PTH is released and increases the kidney's ability to convert Vitamin D to active form and stimulates osteoblasts, resulting in the upregulation of osteoclasts
294
What happens when a person has a high calcium level?
PTH is downregulated, and Calcitonin is released to down-regulate osteoclast
295
When does primary ossification happen?
Happens in utero
296
When does secondary ossification start?
Starts around birth
297
What is the Wolff's Law
It is bone's model and remodel in response to mechanical environment
298
What muscles are involuntary?
Cardiac and Smooth
299
What muscles are voluntary?
Skeletal
300
What muscles are striated?
Skeletal and Cardiac
301
What muscles are unstriated?
Smooth
302
What are the cells of muscle tissue?
muscle fibers
303
What is muscle tissue constructed of?
Bundles of muscle fibers (muscle cells)
304
What is the outer muscle surrounded by?
Epimysium
305
What surrounds the fasicle? (bundles of muscle of muscle fibers, inside the msucle)
Perimysium
306
What is each muscle fiber encased in?
Endomysium
307
Oder the Skeletal muscle units
Epimysium
perimysium
fasicle
endomysium
muscle fiber
myofibrils
308
What are the sub-units of myofibrils (basic structural unit of muscle fibers)?
Sacromeres
309
What do thick myofilaments contain?
myosin
310
What do thin myofilaments contain?
actin
311
What are the bands that separate thick and thin units?
Z-lines
312
what is the cell membrane of muscle fibers called?
Sarcolemma
313
What ER stores calcium?
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
314
What are two unique types of proteins called for muscle contraction?
tropomyosin and troponin
315
What does T-tubules do?
help spread excitation into the inside of cell
316
What does muscle contraction cause?
Muscle contraction causes two types of myofilaments (actin and myosin) to slide toward each other.
317
what causes sarcomeres to shorten and what does this shortening cause?
Actin and myosin slide toward each other and shorten the sarcomere. This causes the entire muscle to contract/shorten.
318
what is the temporary connection that forms between myosin and actin fibers to pull the sarcomere together?
Cross-bridges
319
What signal begins the process of contraction?
A chemical signal (neurotransmitter) from acetylcholine
320
What do excited muscles release and where does it go to?
Calcium from the SR and goes to muscle fiber.
321
What does the body use to help formation of myosin heads and what does it break?
ATP, and breaks the crossbridges.
322
What causes myosin head to return to a pre-contraction state?
When new ATP binds
323
What is required to initiate contraction?
the impulse from a motor neuron in our spinal cord to cause the release of acetylcholine.
324
What channel is open during contraction?
Sodium channels
325
What causes sodium channels to open?
When Acetylcholine binds to muscle
326
What causes the muscle fiber to get excited?
When sodium flows into the muscle fiber
327
What is released when muscle fibers become excited?
Releases Calcium from the SR into the cytoplasm
328
What allows formation of cross-bridges between myosin heads and actin myofilaments?
Calcium
329
What happens when ATP is used up during contraction?
It allows cross-bridges to break and reform, pulling the actin myofilaments closer together as they slide along the myosin myofilaments.
330
What does shortened sarcomere result in?
Shortening of many muscle fibers, which is contraction.
331
What happens during muscle relaxation?
Acetylcholinesterase degrades acetylcholine so the muscle can relax.
332
What causes the muscle to appear striped (striated)?
Due to the arrangement of sarcomeres
333
What are sarcomeres made up of?
Actin filaments and myosin filaments.
334
What is the sliding Filament Theory?
Actin filaments slide past myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere
335
Which filament stays in the middle during contraction?
myosin
336
What does Myosin pull on actin through using what?
Through cross-bridges, ATP is used for energy.
337
When does Cross bridge form
When myosin heads bind to actin filaments
338
What is a power stroke?
It's when myosin undergoes a power stroke and pulls actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.
339
Is power stroke ATP-dependent?
Yes
340
What does ATP provide energy for during a power stroke?
-myosin to detach from actin
-When resetting the myosin head for the next contraction
341
What powers the myosin head to pull actin (called the power stroke)?
ATP hydrolysis (breaking down of ATP)
342
What does calcium bind to causing tropomyosin to expose binding sites on actin?
troponin
343
When Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to expose binding sites on actin, what process does this enable?
Cross-bridge cycle
344
In resting muscles. what does tropomyosin do?
Tropomyosin blocks myosin binding sites on actin
345
What happens when calcium binds to troponin?
When calcium binds to troponin, tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin binding sites on actin, allowing contraction to occur.
346
What does ATP provide energy for during contraction?
Power stroke and the release of myosin from actin
347
What is required to initiate contraction by unlocking the binding sites on actin?
Calcium
348
Without ATP and calcium, what cannot be done effectively?
Muscle contraction
349
What causes rigor mortis (myosin stays attached to actin)
Lack of ATP
350
Muscles with very high demands also store what and use it as energy?
Fat
351
Higher demand muscles also have a greater what to carry much needed oxygen?
blood supply
352
what does the greater blood supply appear as?
Darker color
353
What are the three types of contraction?
Reflexive
Tonic
Phasic
354
Is reflexive contraction under voluntary or involuntary control?
involuntary
355
What are examples of Reflective contration?
Respiration and DTRs
356
What does Tonic contraction describe?
resting state
357
What are examples of Tonic contraction?
Gives a firmness to joints
358
What are two types of Phasic contraction?
Isotonic and Isometric
359
What are subsets of Isotonic contraction?
Concentric and Eccentric
360
What does Concentric do?
Muscle shortening
361
What does Eccentric do?
Muscle lengthening
362
What are Prime Mover (agonist)?
Contracts concentrically
Ex: (bicep)
363
What are Antagonist?
Eccentric contraction
Ex: Tricep
364
What are fixators?
Isometric contraction
Ex: Elbow sticking to our lat
365
What are synergist?
Assists prime mover
Ex: Brachialis
366
What is point of origin?
The end of the muscle that is attached to the stationary bone
Ex: Humerus
367
What is point of insertion?
Muscle end attached to the moving bone
Ex: forearm
368
What does Cardiac muscles form?
Forms wall of heart (myocardium)
369
Blood supply to cardiac muscle is what to that of skeletal muscle?
double
370
What connects the cardiac muscle fibers?
Intercalated discs
371
When one fiber in cardiac muscle contract, what happens after?
It pulls the next fiber into a contraction creating a domino effect.
372
What squeezes blood out very efficiently?
wave of motion
373
Does cardiac muscle repair itself?
nope
374
What does damage to the cardiac muscle cause?
Damage will leave a scar
375
What happens when there's a scar in cardiac muscle?
Scar tissue does not contract like normal tissue because it is rigid; decreases cardiac output.
376
Is smooth voluntary or involuntary?
involuntary
377
Why does smooth muscles respond slower?
because they are unstriated
378
Where are smooth muscles located?
All organs except the heart
Blood vessels
Bronchial airways
379
Why is contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles important to the internal body processes?
Cuz it handles digestion and regulation of blood pressure.
380
Do involuntary muscles contract less rapidly or more rapidly than skeletal muscles?
less rapidly
381
How many times faster do skeletal muscles contract than involuntary muscles?
50 times faster
382
What is Vasodilation?
Enlarging the diameter of a blood vessel
383
What can Vasodilation cause?
Can lead to decreased blood pressure due to smooth muscle relaxation
384
What is Vasoconstriction?
Decreasing the diameter of a blood vessel
385
What can Vasoconstriction cause?
Can lead to increased blood pressure
386
What are sphincters?
It is a special type of smooth muscle found throughout the digestive system.
387
What shape are sphincters?
Donut-shaped
388
What is function of sphincters?
It acts as a doorway to let material in and out
-Contraction closes the door
-Relaxation opens the door
389
Which type of muscle fiber is slow twitch?
Type 1
390
Which types of muscle fiber is fast twitch?
Type 2A and 2X
391
What are type 1 muscle fibers used for?
Marathons
392
What are Type 2A and 2X fibers used for?
sprinting
393
What size of muscle fiber is Type 1?
Small muscle size fiber
394
What size of muscle fiber is 2A?
Large muscle size fiber
395
What size of muscle fiber is 2X?
Large muscle size fiber
396
What kind of force production can Type 1 muscle fibers produce?
Low force production
397
What kind of force production can Type 2A muscle fibers produce?
high force production
398
What kind of force production can Type 2X muscle fibers produce?
very high force production
399
Type 1 muscle fiber resistance to fatigue
Slow
400
Type 2A muscle fiber resistance to fatigue
Quick
401
Type 2X muscle fiber resistance to fatigue
Very quick
402
Contraction Speed of Type 1A muscle fiber
slow
403
Contraction Speed of Type 2A muscle fiber
quick
404
Contraction Speed of Type 2X muscle fiber
Very quick
405
Level of mitochondria present in Type 1 muscle fiber
high
406
Level of mitochondria present in Type 2A muscle fiber
Medium
407
Level of mitochondria present in Type 2X muscle fiber
Low
408
Which type of muscle fiber produces the most amount of force?
Type 2X
409
Which is the most inefficient muscle fiber type?
Type 2X
410
Which type of muscle fiber produces the least amount of force?
Type 1
411
Which type of muscle fiber has an Aeroabic pathway? (oxygen)
Type 1
412
Which type of muscle fiber has an Anaerobic pathway? (no oxygen)
Type 2X
413
Where is the energy stored in Type 2X muscle fiber?
In the muscle because it is Anaerobic pathway
414
What are myotomes?
Group of muscle innervated by a single nerve route
415
C5
Elbow flexors
416
C6
wrist extensors
417
C7
Elbow extensors
418
C8
Finger extensors
419
T1
Intrinsic Hand muscles
420
L2
Hip flexors
421
L3
Knee Extensors
422
L4
Ankle dorsiflexors
423
L5
Long toe extensors
424
S1
Ankle plantar flexors
425
Example of Class 1 lever
Neck flexion and extension
426
Example of Class 2 lever
Calf raises/ Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion
427
Example of Class 3 lever
Bicep curls
428
Where is the effort at for Class 1 lever
at back
429
Where is the effort at for Class 2 lever
At back
430
Where is the effort at for Class 3 lever
in the middle
431
Where is the load at for Class 1 lever
At the front
432
Where is the load at for Class 2 lever
In the middle
433
Where is the load at for Class 3 lever
At the front
434
What does the ANS control?
Controls involuntary components like cardiac and smooth muscles. several glands
435
What does the Somatic Nervous System control?
All voluntary movement
436
What does the peripheral nervous system contain?
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves and their derivatives.
437
What is the input of the (peripheral) nervous system?
Sensory
438
What is the output of the (peripheral) nervous system?
Motor
439
What are two types of autonomic system?
Parasympathetic and sympathetic
440
What is the parasympathetic system?
"Rest and digest"
441
What is the sympathetic system?
"Fight or flight"
442
What is afferent?
Carries sensory information to the CNS
443
What is efferent?
Carries motor information away from the CNS to the body
444
What is the function of the neuron body?
Cell metabolism
445
What is synapse?
Where the axon terminal and receiving cell meet.
446
What is the most common neuron type?
Multipolar
447
What type of neuron is "all motor neurons to skeletal muscle and those in the ANS"
Multipolar
448
What type of neuron is "all sensory neurons in the PNS"
Pseudounipolar
449
Is sensory neuron input or output?
input
450
Is motor neuron input or output?
output
451
What are interneurons?
Communication between neurons
452
What are four types of CNS Glial Cells?
Astrocytes
Microglial
Ependymal
Oligodendrocytes
453
What are Astrocytes?
Most abundant, give support and nutrients to the neuron, controls chemical environment through mopping up leaked potassium, part of the info processing in the brain.
Plays role in blood brain barrier
454
What is Microglial?
It plays an immune system role in the CNS, monitors health.
455
What is Ependymal?
Helps in circulation on CSF through their cilia
456
What is Oligodendrocytes?
It produces myelin sheath in the CNS
457
What are two types of PNS Glial Cells?
Satellite cells and Schwann cells
458
What are satellite cells (PNS)?
Support and nutrients
It's like astrocytes of the PNS
459
What are Schwann Cells?
It supplies myelin sheath in PNS - plays an important role in nerve regeneration
460
What is the charge of the Resting Membrane Potential?
-70 mV
461
What is the charge of the Threshold?
-55 mV
462
Are neurons excitable cells?
Yes
463
When does hyperpolarization occur?
When a cell becomes more negative than resting
464
When is the refractory period?
Time period during which cell cannot accept another stimulus/
465
What determines the excitement of the cell in local potential?
The size of the stimulus
466
What is the difference between action potential and local potential?
Action potentials are "all or none"
Local potentials vary in size depending on the stimulus.
467
What determines the speed of impulse conduction?
By the amount of myelin and the diameter of the axon
468
What makes the myelin sheath in CNS?
oligodendrocytes
469
What makes the myelin sheath in PNS?
Schwann cells
470
What color is myelinated nerves?
white
471
what color is unmyelinated nerves?
Gray
472
What can leak out through the gates in unmyelinated axon?
Sodium ions
473
In myelinated axons, where can sodium ions only enter?
nodes of Ranvier
474
What kind of conduction is in myelinated axons?
Saltatory conduction (jumping between nodes)
475
What affects the speed of the AP flow?
Diameter of the axon
476
What is the role of the frontal lobe?
Executive function, conscious muscle control, learning and recall, Social behavior
477
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
Sensory processing, Location awareness
478
What is the role of the occipital lobe?
Vision
479
What is the role of the temporal lobe?
Auditory, olfactory
480
What are two important gyri to kbow
Precentral Gyrus and Postcentral Gyrus
481
What is Precentral Gyrus?
Primary motor cortex
482
What is Postcentral Gyrus?
Primary sensory cortex
483
Where is Substantia Nigra located?
Located in basal ganglia
484
What is the function of the Substantia Nigra?
Produces dopamine
485
What is the function of the Pineal Gland?
Produces melatonin
486
What is the function of the Pituitary Gland?
Hormones
487
What is the result of Broca's aphasia?
Nonfluent speech
488
Which part of the brain is affected by Broca's Area?
Frontal Cortex
489
What is the result of the Wernicke's Area?
deficits in the comprehension of language
490
Which part of the brain is affected by Wernicke's area?
temporal lobe
491
Which part of the brain is the coordination of motor and sensory information?
Cerebellum
492
What are the three parts of the brain stem?
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata
493
What is the function of the Midbrain?
Sensory and motor information relay station for vision and hearing
The midbrain controls motor movement, particularly eye movements, and reflexes. For example, if you touch your hand to a hot stove, your midbrain allows you to jerk your hand away
494
What is the function of the Pons?
Information relay station, breathing
495
What is the function of the Medullar Oblongata?
Regulation of HR, BP, breathing, reflex for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomitting.
496
What are the 4 parts of the Diencephalon?
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pineal Body
Pituitary Gland
497
What is the function of the Thalamus?
Relays and processing center for incoming sensory information (not smell) and outgoing motor information.
It doesn't just pass signals along; it also organizes and filters them. The thalamus decides what's important and what's not.
498
What is the function of the Hypothalamus?
Autonomic functions (Heart rate, breathing, digestion, body temperature)
Regulation of hormones
Homeostasis
499
What is the function of the Pineal Body?
Body clock
500
what is the function of the Pituitary gland?
Produce and release hormones
501
What parts of the brain are included in Limbic System?
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Basal ganglia
Hippocampus
Amygdala
502
What is the function of Hippocampus?
Memories
503
What is the function of Amygdala?
Emotional Response
504
What connects the left and right hemisphere?
Corpus Callosum
505
What is the left hemsisphere mainly for?
language
506
What is the right hemisphere mainly for?
Attention, memory, reasoning, probelm solving
507
What it the blood brain Barrier made of?
Tight union of epithelial cells
508
What kind of molecules can pass through Blood Brain Barrier and pass into the CNS?
Only small molecules
Small and fat-soluble (Alcohol, caffeine, nicotine) can pass through
509
What is the role of the CSF?
regulation of extracellular contents, protection
510
What is the CSF caontain?
water, amino acids, proteins
511
Where are the CSF formed?
In ventricles
512
What secretes CSF?
Choroid Plexus in Ventricles
513
Three types of Meninges from superficial to deep
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
514
How many segments are there in the spinal cord?
31 segments
515
Where does the spinal cord segments end?
Ends at L2 in conus medullaris
516
What parts of the body is protected by meninges?
Brain and spinal cord
517
What do the meninges do?
Help to set up layers that act as cushioning and shock absorbers.
518
Which is the part Meninges contain blood vessels?
Pia mater
519
Which space is filled with CSF in the spinal cord that acts as a fluid cushion?
subarachnoid space
520
Order the spaces in the spinal cord from superficial to deep.
Epidural
Subdural
Subarachnoid
521
Which root is sensory?
Dorsal root
522
Which root is motor?
Ventral root
523
Which matter is in the center?
Gray matter
524
Which matter is in the outside area?
White matter
525
What is Gray matter consist of?
Somas (cell bodies)
526
What is White matter consist of?
axons
527
What are the three types of horns located in the internal structure of Gray matter?
Dorsal Horn
Ventral Horn
Lateral Horn
528
What is Dorsal horn in the internal structure of Gray matter?
Sensory functions
529
What is ventral horn in the internal structure of Gray matter?
motor functions
530
What is lateral horn in the internal structure of Gray matter?
Sympathetic
531
What does the dorsal column tract carry?
fine-touch and vibration information to the cerebral cortex
532
What does the Spinothalamic tract carry?
Temperature, pain, and crude touch information to the cerebral cortex
533
What does the Spinocerebellar tract carry?
posture and position information to the cerebellum
534
What are three tracts (information) from ascending pathways?
Dorsal column tract
Spinothalamic tract
Spinocerebellar tract
535
What are two tracts (information) from descending pathways?
Corticospinal tract
Corticobulbar tract
536
What does the Corticospinal tract carry?
orders from cerebral cortex to motor neurons in ventral horn of spinal cord
537
What does the Corticobulbar tract carry?
orders from cerebral cortex to motor neurons in brain stem.
538
What are the two descending pathways tracts?
Reticulospinal tract
rubrospinal tract
539
What does the ReReticulospinal tract and rubrospinal tract carry?
information from the various regions of the brain to the brain stem and ventral horn, which helps to coordinate movements.
540
Is medial Corticospinal Tract motor or sensory?
Motor
541
Is the reticulospinal Tract motor or sensory?
Motor
542
Is the Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract motor or sensory?
Motor
543
Is the Medial Vestibulospinal Tract motor or sensory?
Motor
544
What specific muscles are related to the Medial Corticospinal Tract?
Neck
Shoulder
trunk muscles
545
What specific muscles are related to the Reticulospinal Tract?
Postural and gross limb muscles
546
What specific muscles are related to the Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract?
Postural muscles, responds to gravity info
547
What specific muscles are related to the Medial Vestibulospinal Tract?
Neck, responds to input regarding head motion
548
What is the most important motor tract?
Lateral Corticospinal Tract
549
What does Lateral Corticospinal Tract do?
It controls all VOLUNTARY movement
550
Is the Spinothalamic tract motor or sensory?
Sensory
551
Is the Dorsal column/Medial Lemniscus tract motor or sensory?
Sensory
552
Is the Spinocerebellar tract motor or sensory?
Sensory
553
What does the spinothalamic tract carry?
Fast nociception, temperature, crude touch
Fast nociception refers to the quick, sharp pain you feel right after an injury, like when you touch something hot or prick your finger. It’s your body’s way of quickly warning you to pull away from danger.
554
What does the Dorsal column/Medial Lemniscus tract carry?
Light touch and proprioception
Proprioception is your body's sense of position and movement. It’s how you know where your body parts are without looking at them. For example, if you close your eyes and raise your hand, you can still feel where your hand is.
555
what does the Spinocerebellar tract carry?
Movement related information
-Ipsilateral cerebellum
556
What is the function of the Interneurons?
To regulate sensory information
Coordination of movement patterns
Autonomic regulation
557
What are Monosynaptic Reflexes?
What they test at the Doctor's office
Simple arc reflex: single synapse between afferent and efferent
558
What are Polysynaptic Reflexes?
Involves reciprocal inhibition
Ex: Withdrawal reflex
559
What Primitive reflex test could be used to test Pyramidal tract lesion?
Babinski
Normal in infants: In babies under 2 years old, their big toe will move upward, and the other toes might fan out. This is normal because their nervous system is still developing.
Abnormal in adults: In adults and older children, the normal response is for all the toes to curl downward. If the big toe moves upward and the other toes fan out (a positive Babinski sign), it can indicate a problem with the brain or spinal cord, especially in the pyramidal tract, which controls movement.
560
What Primitive reflex test could be used to test Frontal Lobe Lesion and Lewy Body Dementia?
Grasp Reflex
Abnormal in adults: In older children and adults, the grasp reflex usually disappears as the brain matures and gains control over reflexes. If it reappears in adults, it can be a sign of brain damage or neurological disorders, such as a stroke or frontal lobe injury.
561
What Primitive reflex test could be used to test Parkinson’s disease?
Glabellar Tap reflex (blinking)
562
What does the Epidural Space contain?
Adipose, connective tissue, ervesm venous plexus, lymphatics
563
What does the Subdural space contain?
Potential space
564
What does the subarachnoid Space contain?
CSF
565
What separates individual axons in PNS?
Endoneurium
566
What surrounds bundles of axons in PNS?
Perineurium
567
What surrounds the nerve trunk in PNS?
Epineurium
568
What three parts can PNS broken down into?
Sensory
Motor
Autonomic
569
What are the 4 types of sensory nerve fibers in PNS?
A-Alpha
A-Beta
A-Delta
C fibers
570
What is the function of A-Alpha fibers in PNS sensory?
It helps you sense the position of your body and how it moves.
For example, they let you know your arm is raised even if your eyes are closed.
Think of them as: The "body awareness" sensors.
571
What is the function of A-Beta fibers in PNS sensory?
Detect light touch, pressure, and vibrations on your skin.
For example, they help you feel a gentle tap or the texture of a surface.
Think of them as The "touch and feel" sensors.
572
What is the function of A-Delta fibers in PNS sensory?
Sense sharp, quick pain (like a pinprick) and cold temperatures.
For example, they alert you immediately when you touch something sharp or icy.
Think of them as: The "fast pain and cold" sensors.
573
What is the function of C-fibers fibers in PNS sensory?
Detect slow, dull pain (like an ache), warmth, and itching.
For example, they’re what make you feel a lingering burn or an annoying itch.
Think of them as: The "slow pain and itch" sensors.
574
What are the three types of Mechanoreceptors in the PNS?
Meissner
Ruffini
Pacinian
575
What is the function of the Mechanoreceptor Meissner?
Skin motion/light touch and texture
576
What is the function of the Mechanoreceptor Ruffini?
Detects Stretch of the skin
577
What is the function of the Mechanoreceptor Pacinian?
Detects Vibration and Fine texture/Deep pressure and vibrations. (detail feel)
578
What are the two types of Motor in PNS?
Somatic and Visceral
579
What is the function of the Somatic Motor?
Carries information to skeletal muscles
580
What is the function of the Visceral Motor?
Carries information to glands, cardiac, smooth muscle (organs)
-Autonomic
581
In PNS, what is the Proximal Portions of the spinal nerves consist of?
Consists of a anterior and posterior root.
582
What does the posterior root of the proximal portion of spinal nerves in PNS contain?
Posterior root contains cell bodies of afferent nerves.
583
In PNS, what do the Distal Branches of the spinal nerves consist of?
Posterior Ramus and Anterior Ramus
584
What does the Posterior Ramus of the Distal Branches do?
Muscles and joint of back
585
What does the Anterior Ramus of the Distal Branches do?
Gives rise to limb innervation
-Form plexuses
586
What does the Brachial Plexus innervate?
It innervates the entire upper extremity.
The upper extremity refers to the upper part of your body that includes your arm, shoulder, and hand.
587
What does the Lumbar Plexus innervate?
skin and muscles of the anterior and medial thigh and continues to the medial leg and foot.
588
What does the Sacral Plexus innervate?
Posterior thigh (hamstrings) and majority of leg and foot.
589
Where are neurons for the autonomic system located?
In the spinal cord and brainstem and release the neurotansmitter acetylcholine
590
Which horn are autonomic motor neurons located>
Lateral horn
591
Does autonomic motor neurons project directly to muscles?
Unlike the somatic motor neurons, autonomic neurons do not project directly to muscles
592
What are the two types neurons for ANS?
Preganglionic neurons and Postganglionic neuron
593
Which neuron projects to the muscle in the ANS?
Postganglionic neuron
594
Are there any autonomic neurons in the cervical spinal cord?
Nope
595
Where are preganglionic neurons located?
In the thoracic and first 2 lumbar segments of the spinal cord.
596
What happens with the preganglionic neurons and postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic brach of ANS?
The preganglionic neurons, which secrete acetylcholine, synapse with the postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic ganglia.
597
Where are the neurons of the parasympathetic system located?
Brain stem and sacral spinal cord
598
Which neuron releases acetylcholine in the parasympathetic branch of ANS?
Postganglionic neurons
599
What does Sympathetic equal to?
thoracolumbar
600
What does Parasympathetic equal to?
craniosacral
601
When does parasympathetic use acetylcholine?
pre and post-ganglionic
602
When does sympathetic use acetylcholine?
Only at the pre-ganglionic
603
Where are presynaptic cell bodies located in sympathetic?
Gray matter of spinal cord from T1 to upper lumbar
604
What are examples of Sympathetic?
Blood vessel contraction
Pilomotion
Sweating
Eye dilation
605
Where are presynaptic cell bodies located in parasympathetic?
Gray matter of the brain stem
606
What are the functions of the sympathetic?
Catabolic, using energy
Enables the body to deal with stress
Fight or flight
607
What are the functions of the parasympathetic?
Anabolic, energy conserving (homeostatsis)
608
What is the function of Reticular formation?
Coordinates heart activity, blood pressure, body temp, water balance, endocrine activity stress and fear
609
Brainstem
Reflexive regulation of Heart Rate
610
What is Nicotinic in receptors?
Always stimulatory
611
What is Muscarinic in receptors?
Smooth muscle: excitatory
Cardiac muscle: inhibitory
612
Where does the spinal cord connect with brain?
Medullar oblongata (part of brain stem)
613
What procuces Cerebrospinal Fluid?
Choroid Plexus
614
What is Cerebrospinal Fluid?
Clear liquid that contains proteins and glucose for energy as well as lymphocytes to guard against infection
615
What is the superficial layer of Epidermis?
Stratum Corneum
616
What is the Depp later of Epidermis?
Stratum Basale
617
Is epidermis vascular or avascular?
avascular
618
What is in the dermis?
Nerve endings, blood and lymph, seat glands, hair follicles
619
How does the epidermis regenerate?
Regenerates from stem cells in the basal layer
620
What cells are in the Stratum Corneum of the Epidermis?
flat, scaly, keratinized epithelial cells
621
What specialized cells are responsible for skin color?
Melanocytes
622
Where is Melanocytes located?
Deep in the epidermis
623
What does Melanocytes produce?
Melanin, a substance that causes skin color
624
What is the acid mantle?
It is located on the surface of the skin, and the low acidity of this thin film prevents the colonization of harmful pathogens.
625
What are the two layers of Dermis?
Superficial papillary layer
Deep reticular layer
626
What allows the elasticity of skin, preventing the tearing of skin with movement?
Collagen and elastic fibers
627
Where are sweat glands located in the integumentary system?
Dermis
628
What are the two main types of sweat glands located in the dermis?
Apocrine and Eccrine
629
What is Apocrine gland?
Secrete at hair follicles in the groin, anal region, armpits; become active at puberty and act as sexual attractants.
630
What is Eccrine gland?
Found in greater numbers on palms, feet, forehead, upper lip; important in temperature regulation
631
What is the function of Sebaceous Glands?
Play an important role by secreting oil (sebum)
-Sebum keeps skin from drying out
632
What does the acidic nature of Sebum do?
Helps destroy some pathogens on skin's surface
633
Where are Sebaceous glands found?
Both hair-covered areas and eyelids, penis, labia minora, nipples
634
What is the function of Hypodermis/Subcutaneous Fascia?
Provides cushion and insulation
-Connects skin to underlying structures
635
What is the innermost layer of the skin called?
Subcutaneous Fascia/ Hypodermis
636
What is the subcutaneous Fascia/ Hypodermis composed of?
Elastic and fibrous connective tissue and fatty tissue
637
What are lipocytes (fat cells) in Hypodermis?
It produces the fat to provide padding and act as insulation for temperature regulation.
638
Where does Fascia attach to?
Body msucles
639
Where is hair derived from?
From epidermis however roots grow into the dermis
640
What is the function of hair?
Mechanical protection for the skin, increases sensory function, and aids in regulating body temperature
641
How are nails form?
From layers of keratin
642
What is the function of nails?
Protects the fingers and toes
643
What is the visible portion of the nail?
Nail body
644
What is the white, half-moon-shaped area of the nail?
Lunula
645
What is the visible hair composed of?
Keratin, a fibrous protein
646
What is the Cuticle of the hair?
protective cells covering the shaft
647
What is the Cortex of the hair?
Layer beneath cuticle that contains melanin (hair color)
648
What is the Follicle of the hair?
Formed by epithelial cells with a rich source of blood provided by the dermal blood vessels
649
What happens in the Follicle of the hair?
Cells divide and grow in the base of the follicle, older cells are pushed away and die, so the shaft of the hair is comprised of dead cells.
650
What does Vasodilation do?
It exposes heated blood to external cooling hair.
-Blood vessels dilate
651
What does Vasoconstriction do?
It keeps the cooling of blood to a minimum when it's cold outside, decreasing radiant heat loss.
-Blood vessels constrict
652
What are two factors that affect assessments of damage (burn to the skin)?
Depth
Amount of area damaged
653
What does the depth of a burn relate to?
to the layers of skin affected by the burn
654
What layer is damaged by first degree burns?
Epidermis
-Redness and pain but no blister
655
What layer is damaged by second degree burns?
whole epidermis and a portion of the dermis
-Redness, pain, blistering
656
What is common in second degree burns?
Sacrring
657
What layer is damaged by thrid degree burns?
All three layers of the skin
658
Will a patient with a third degree burns sense pain?
no, because the pain receptors are destroyed.
659
What is destroyed by third degree burns?
Pain receptors
Sweat and sebaceous glands
hair follicles
blood vessels
660
What is the worst degree of burns?
Fourth degree
661
What does the fourth degree burns do?
It penetrates the bone and cause bone damage
662
What happens in the stage 1 pressure wound?
The skin is intact with the presence of non-blanchable erythema
663
What happens in the stage 2 pressure wound?
there is a partial-thickness skin loss involving the epidermis and dermis
664
What happens in the stage 3 pressure wound?
Full thickness loss of skin that extends to the subcutaneous tissue but does not cross the fascia beneath it.
The lesion may be foul smelling
665
What happens in the stage 4 pressure wound?
Full thickness skin loss extending through the fascia with considerable tissue loss
There might be possible involvement of the muscle, tendon, or joint.
666
What ar the wound healing stages?
Inflammation, proliferation, remodeling
667
