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Biodiversity > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

history of organizing life

A

Carlus Linnaeus (sweden) established modern taxonomy (bionomial nomenclature)

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2
Q

taxonomy

A

naming and classifying organisms

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3
Q

phylogeny

A

the evolutionary relationships among organisms or their genes

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4
Q

What are the 5 hypotheses portrayed in the phylogenetic tree?

A 
1- morphology
2- paleontology
3- behavior
4- development
5- molecular
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5
Q

morphology

A

anatomy, external structures, more in common (closer evolutionary relationship)

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6
Q

limitations of morphology

A

difficult to compare distantly related species and some variation caused by environment
ex- leopard frogs N and Central America

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7
Q

paleontology

A

includes when are where organisms lived (ancestral vs derived traits)

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8
Q

limitations of paleontology

A

fossil record- few and fragmented

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9
Q

behavior

A

active morphology

cultural vs inherited traits (bird and frog calls)

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10
Q

developmental patterns

A

sea squirts and vertebrae both have notochord

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11
Q

molecular data

A

DNA often used to construct phylogenetic trees

  • mutations accumulate over time
  • fewer differences= more closely related
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12
Q

what are photogenically analyses important for?

A

studying the transmission of viruses

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13
Q

how to (not) read a phylogenetic tree

A

time is read from root to tip
nodes are speciation events
relatedness = most recent common ancestor

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14
Q

Basic principle of molecular clock

A

Average rate at which a given gene or protein accumulates changes- used to gauge time of particular split in phylogeny

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15
Q

What does the molecular clock help with?

A

Dating evolutionary events

-rates constant so they can be used to predict divergence times

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16
Q

What is an example of what a molecular clock can help with?

A

Timing of when HIV first entered human pop from chimp

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17
Q

What is 16s rRNA? What does it code for?

A
  • Small ribosomal subunit

- useful for comparing bacteria (common among all)

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18
Q

Biological species concept

A

Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups

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19
Q

Limitations of biological species concept

A

Not asexual/ limited to certain point

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20
Q

Morphological species concept

A

Appearance

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21
Q

Limitations of morphological species concept

A

Young, look alike, cryptic species

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22
Q

Group of organisms that can mate with one another and produce fertile offspring

A

Species

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23
Q

Divergence of biological lineages and the emergence of reproductive isolation

A

Speciation

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24
Q

Clade

A

Include all species linked by descent from a common ancestor

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25
Q

Monophyletic

A

Clade

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26
Q

Polyphyletic

A

Missing common ancestor

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27
Q

Paraphyletic

A

Missing some descendants

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28
Q

Taxon

A

Any species or group that we designate or name

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29
Q

How are new species formed?

A

Reproductive isolation between species

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30
Q

Reproductive isolation

A

No longer exchange genes

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31
Q

Reproductive isolation only affects

A

Sexually reproducing organisms

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32
Q

Allopatric

A

Populations separated by physical barrier

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33
Q

Examples of allopatric speciation

A

Continents drift, sea level changes, glaciers, climate changes
(Ozarks vs eastern highlands- fish)

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34
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

No physical isolation

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35
Q

Pre zygotic isolating mechanisms

A

Before fertilization occurs

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36
Q

3 examples of prezygotic isolating mechanisms

A
  • mechanical
  • behavior
  • temporal
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37
Q

Mechanical isolation

A

Differences in size and shape of reproductive organs makes mating impossible

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38
Q

Behavior isolation

A

Individuals reject to fail to recognize potential mating partners

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39
Q

Temporal isolation

A

Mating periods do not overlap

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40
Q

Post zygotic isolating mechanisms

A

Reduce fitness of hybrid offspring

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41
Q

Examples of post zygotic isolating mechanisms

A
  • low hybrid fitness

- zygotes or adult offspring have lower fitness or hybrids are infertile

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42
Q

Similarities between eukaryotic and bacterial cells

A
  • have cytoplasm
  • have plasma membranes
  • need to divide to produce more cells
  • carry DNA on chromosomes
  • copy DNA
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43
Q

Three differences antibiotics exploit

A
  • ribosomes
  • prokaryotes have circular DNA
  • cell wall
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44
Q

Explain ribosomal difference

A
  • prokaryotes have smaller ribosomes than eukaryotes (70s)
  • both have rRNA and proteins =subunits of ribosome
  • antibiotics bind to pockets in subunits of ribosomes
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45
Q

Describe difference of prokaryotes shape of DNA

A
  • need DNA gyrase
  • –uncoils DNA during replication and prevents “knots”
  • –halts DNA replication, kills cell
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46
Q

Describe the difference of the cell wall

A

Made of peptidoglycan in bacteria

–use to break bacteria into two groups (gram + and -)

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47
Q

How do bacteria form communities?

A

Aggregate into bio films

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48
Q

How do bacteria reproduce?

A

Asexually - binary fission

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49
Q

Bacteria 2 locations of DNA

A
  • bacterial chromosome (circular DNA)

- plasmids (DNA connected to chromosome)

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50
Q

Survival strategies of bacteria

A
  • bacteria aggregate into bio films, surrounded by protective slime
  • endospores
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51
Q

Endospores

A
  • Produced by bacillus when nutrients are depleted
  • resistant to desiccation, heat, and chemicals
  • resistant to harsh conditions (anthrax)
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52
Q

Shapes of bacteria

A

Spirilla (spirals)
Bacilli (rods)
Cocci (sphere)

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53
Q

Size of bacteria

A

Human hair (100 um)- eukaryotes (60 um) - prokaryotes (1 um) - viruses (0.1 um)

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54
Q

Arrangement of bacterial cells- pairs

A

Diplococci and diplobacilli

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55
Q

Arrangement of bacterial cells- clusters

A

Staphylococci

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56
Q

Arrangement of bacterial cells- chains

A

Streptococci, streptobacilli

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57
Q

Principle of gram stain

A

Separate bacteria into 2 groups via differential stain

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58
Q

Explain gram stain

A

Gram +: peptidoglycan = thick and outside (purple)

Gram -: peptidoglycan = think and covered by another layer (pink)

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59
Q

How do we currently define a “species” of bacteria?

A
  • no widely accepted concept
  • sequence common 16s rRNA and define cut offs of 95-97%
  • operational taxonomic units (otu)
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60
Q

What are the four phyla common the gut?

A
  • actinobacteria
  • bacterioidetes
  • proteobacteria
  • firmicutes
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61
Q

Actinobacteria

A
  • high GC content
  • most antibiotics
  • ex: streptomyces
62
Q

Bacterioidetes

A

-gram negative
-rod: bacilli
-non spore forming
Ex) bacteriodes

63
Q

Proteobacteria

A

Holds most sp

Ex) E. coli and pestis (plague)

64
Q

Firmicutes

A

Low GC
Endospores
Ex) b anthrecis, clostridium
C diff and fecal transplants that restore microbial diversity

65
Q

Services bacteria perform for us

A

Gut microbes affect heart meds
Crime
Brain
Microbes allow energy to be salvaged from otherwise indigestible material

66
Q

Microbiome

A

Communities of bacteria that live in and on our bodies

67
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

Oxygen is poisonous to them

68
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

Cannot survive without oxygen

69
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

Can shift metabolism between aerobic and anaerobic

70
Q

Aerotolerant anaerobes

A

Not damaged by oxygen but do not conduct cellular respiration

71
Q

Bacteria are (blank)

A

Natures recyclers

72
Q

Energy

A

Photo or Chemo troph

73
Q

Carbon

A

Hetero/auto troph

74
Q

Some plants associate with bacteria to form cooperative nitrogen fixing root nodules. What are these called?

A

Chemoheterotrophs

75
Q

Evolutionary reversal

A

3 generations, reverting back to prior generation (skip generation) and ancestral trait

76
Q

Evolutionary convergence

A

Independently evolved traits subjected to similar selection pressures and may become superficially similar (wings)

77
Q

Homoplasy

A

Similar traits in distantly related taxa generated by convergent evolution or evolutionary reversals

78
Q

Tips

79
Q

Nodes

A

Splits in branches that indicate a division of one lineage into two

80
Q

synapomorphy

A

derived traits shared among a group of organisms and viewed as evidence of common ancestry

81
Q

history of evolutionary relationships among organisms or their genes

82
Q

root

A

common ancestor of all the organisms in the tree

83
Q

any species or group of species that we designate or name

84
Q

any taxon that consists of an ancestor and all of its evolutionary descendants

85
Q

complete evolutionary history of life

A

tree of life

86
Q

homologous

A

any features shared by two or more species that have been inherited from a common ancestor

87
Q

example of homologous feature

A

vertebral column in vertebrates

88
Q

parsimony

A

simplest explanation and requires fewest homoplasies

89
Q

characteristics of viruses

A

not cellular, evolve independently, tiny size, rapid mutation rate, no fossils, diverse

90
Q

negative sense single stranded RNA viruses

A
  • RNA that is the complement of the mRNA needed for protein translation
  • few genes
  • RNA dependent RNA polymerase allows them to make complementary mRNA from negative sense RNA genome
  • don’t represent a distinct taxonomic group but instead a particular process of cellular escape
91
Q

examples of negative sense single stranded RNA viruses

A

measles, mumps, rabies, influenza

92
Q

positive sense single stranded RNA viruses

A
  • already set for translation (no replication needed)

- most abundant and diverse

93
Q

examples of positive sense single stranded RNA viruses

A

diseases in crop plants, polio, hepatitis C, common cold

94
Q

double stranded RNA virus

A
  • evolved repeatedly from single stranded RNA ancestors
  • not closely related
  • infect tree of life
95
Q

example of double stranded RNA virus

A

infant diarrhea

96
Q

RNA retroviruses

A
  • genomes composed of SS RNA evolved as escaped cellular components
  • regenerate themselves by reverse transcription
  • provirus= integrated retroviral DNA
  • only infect vertebrates
97
Q

examples of RNA retroviruses

A

HIV, cancer

98
Q

double stranded DNA genome

A
  • polyphyletic
  • exchange of modules complicates history
  • represent highly reduced parasitic organisms that have lost their cellular structure and ability to survive as free living
99
Q

examples of double stranded DNA genome

A

smallpox and herpes

100
Q

bacteriophages

A

viruses that attack bacteria

101
Q

phage therapy

A

bacteriophage taken from stool and used to treat bacterial infections of the skin and intestines

102
Q

bacteriophages provide the ability to

A

evolve and combat antibiotic-resisting bacteria

103
Q

steps in transition from prokaryotic to eukaryotic cell

A

1) origin of a flexible cell surface (lost cell wall)
2) cytoskeletons devloped
3) phagocytosis
4) mitochondria and chloroplasts

104
Q

origin of a flexible cell surface

A
  • can grow larger

- surface area to volume decreases but infolding increases surface area

105
Q

cytoskeletons developed

A
  • provide cell support
  • move materials
  • distribute chromosomes
106
Q

phagocytosis

A

-loss of cell wall= ability to engulf other organisms in digestive vacuoles

107
Q

mitochondria and chloroplasts

A

engulfed bacteria evolved into m and c, endosymbiosis

108
Q

differences between archaea and bacteria/eukarya

A
  • over half genes unique
  • cell membrane (distinctive lipids)
  • ether linkages- branched
109
Q

endosymbiotic theory

A
  • photosynthetic bacteria to chloroplasts

- aerobic bacteria to mitochondria

110
Q

certain organelles are the descendants of prokaryotes englufed, but not digested by early eukaryotic cells

A

endosymbiotic theory

111
Q

primary endosymbiotic theory

A

engulfment of one cyanobacterium by a larger eukaryotic cell

112
Q

support of endosymbiotic theory

A

size and shape, DNA circular, ribosomes (70s)

113
Q

dinoflagellates

A
  • most photosynthesize
  • two flagella
  • coral bleaching
114
Q
  • most photosynthesize
  • two flagella
  • coral bleaching
A

dinoflagellates

115
Q

coral bleaching

A

live endosymbiotically in the cells of corals= reduces corals food when die

116
Q

apicomplexans

A
  • all parasites

- ex) plasmodium (malaria) and toxoplasma (toxoplasmosis)

117
Q
  • all parasites

- ex) plasmodium (malaria) and toxoplasma (toxoplasmosis)

A

apicomplexans

118
Q

ciliates

A
  • most are heterotrophic
  • cilia used for locomotion
  • ex) paramecium
  • contractile vacuole
  • hypotonic (more water out than in)
119
Q

endocytosis

A

engulf solid food

120
Q

contractile vacuole

A

expel water so doesn’t explode

121
Q
  • most are heterotrophic
  • ex) paramecium
  • contractile vacuole
  • hypotonic (more water out than in)
122
Q

diatoms

A
  • unicellular or filaments
  • photosynthetic (1/5 of worlds photosynthetic carbon fixation)
  • symmetric (bilaterally or radially)
123
Q
  • unicellular or filaments
  • photosynthetic (1/5 of worlds photosynthetic carbon fixation)
  • symmetric (bilaterally or radially)
124
Q

radiolarians

A
  • radial symmetry
  • thin, stiff psuedopods
  • elaborate skeletons
125
Q
  • radial symmetry
  • thin, stiff psuedopods
  • elaborate skeletons
A

radiolarians

126
Q

foraminiferans

A
  • shells of calcium carbonate

- accumulate to form limestone

127
Q
  • shells of calcium carbonate

- accumulate to form limestone

A

foraminiferans

128
Q

heterolobosean

A
  • ex) Naegleria fowleri (brain eating amoeba)

- amoeboid body form

129
Q

Euglenids

A
  • have flagella

- some photosynthetic

130
Q
  • have flagella

- some photosynthetic

131
Q
  • ex) Naegleria fowleri (brain eating amoeba)

- amoeboid body form

A

heterolobosean

132
Q

kinetoplastids

A
  • parasites
  • ex) trypanosoma
  • disease: chagas, sleeping sickness
133
Q
  • parasites
  • ex) trypanosoma
  • disease: chagas, sleeping sickness
A

kinetoplastids

134
Q

loboseans

A
  • phagocytosis
  • no flagella, cilia
  • have lobe shaped pseudopods to move
135
Q
  • phagocytosis
  • no flagella, cilia
  • have lobe shaped pseudopods to move
136
Q

plasmodial slime molds

A
  • no plasma membrane
  • mass of cytoplasm, many nuclei
  • streams over substrate- eating
  • transforms into fruiting structures
  • sporangia hold haploid spores
137
Q
  • no plasma membrane
  • mass of cytoplasm, many nuclei
  • streams over substrate- eating
  • transforms into fruiting structures
  • sporangia hold haploid spores
A

plasmodial slime molds

138
Q

cellular slime molds

A
  • retain plasma membrane, individuality

- haploid

139
Q
  • retain plasma membrane, individuality

- haploid

A

cellular slime molds

140
Q

a multicellular (blank) spore forming organism that gives rise to a multicellular (blank) gamete forming organism

A

diploid (2n), haploid (n)

141
Q

the (blank) is the multicellular diploid generation

A

sporophyte

142
Q

the (blank) is the multicellular haploid generation

A

gametophyte

143
Q

cells in the sporophyte divide (blank) to produce haploid spores

A

meiotically

144
Q

spores germinate and divide meitically to produce the (blank)

A

haploid gametophyte generation

145
Q

multicellular, diploid, spore producing stage gives rise to (blank)

A

a multicellular, haploid, gamete producing stage

146
Q

specialized cells of the diploid spore producing organism (sporophytes) divide (blank) to produce (blank)

A

meiotically, four haploid spores

147
Q

gametes produced by the (blank) must fuse to form a new sporophyte generation

A

(gametophyte generation)

148
Q

competition

A
  • and -, both harmed
149
Q

predation

A

+ and -, one benefits, one harmed

150
Q

mutualism

A

+ and +, both benefit

Biodiversity (12 decks)

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