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Biology IGCSE > Unit 16 - Reproduction > Flashcards

Unit 16 - Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

The process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent

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2
Q

Examples of organisms that can reproduce asexually

A
  • Starfish
  • Yeast
  • Plants such as ferns
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3
Q

Advantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • Only one parent is needed - saves time and energy
  • Organisms reproduce very quickly - example bacteria can divide every 20 minutes
  • Helps farming due to easy reproduction
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4
Q

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • All individuals have same characteristics
  • Vulnerable to environmental changes
  • One infection can spread to all
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5
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

The process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two specialized sex cells to form offspring

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6
Q

Male gamete

A

Sperm cell

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7
Q

Female gamete

A

Ovum/egg cell

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8
Q

Haploid

A
  • The nucleus of a gamete
  • Has 23 chromosomes
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9
Q

Diploid

A
  • Nucleus of a zygote
  • Has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
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10
Q

Advantages of sexual reproduction

A
  • Introduces variation to the population
  • More resistance to environmental changes and diseases
  • Farmers making crops can choose the best characteristics from different strains to produce new plants
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11
Q

Disadvantages of sexual production

A
  • A lot of time and energy is spent finding a mate and reproducing
  • Much slower than asexual reproduction - months or years
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12
Q

Pollination

A

The transfer of pollen from the male part of a flower to the female part of another flower

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13
Q

Plants that rely on insects for pollination

A

Insect-pollinated

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14
Q

Male part of a plant

A

Stamen - anther & filament

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15
Q

Female part of a plant

A

Carpel - ovary, style & stigma

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16
Q

Sepal description & function

A
  • Green part at the top of the stem under the petals
  • Protects the flower when growing and helps to stop it from drying out
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17
Q

Petal description & function

A
  • Brightly colored part of the flower
  • Attract insects, birds or mammals for pollination
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18
Q

Stamen description & function

A
  • Male part of the flower containing the filament and anther
  • Produces male gametes (pollen) and provides needed structures and conditions for pollen transfer
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19
Q

Filament description & function

A
  • There stalk that supports the anther
  • Holds the anther in position to transfer pollen to a pollinator
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20
Q

Anther description & function

A
  • Colored, usually with a powdery appearance
  • Produces pollen grains which contain the plant’s male gametes
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21
Q

Stigma description & function

A
  • Usually green and the tallest part inside the flower with a sticky layer
  • Traps pollen from other flowers
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22
Q

Style description & function

A
  • Thin structure that supports the stigma and is above the ovary
  • Supports and presents the stigma in a position to receive pollen
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23
Q

Carpel description & function

A
  • Female part of the flower that contains the stigma, style & ovary
  • Produces female gametes and provides correct structures and conditions for fertilization
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24
Q

Ovary description & function

A
  • Green, bulb-shaped part near the bottom of the flower
  • Contains ovules (containing female gametes), which will develop into seeds after fertilization
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25
Q

Ovule description & function

A
  • Structures within the ovary
  • Female gametes are produced and contained in the ovules which will then become seeds upon fertilization
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26
Q

Pollen transported by insects

A
  • Spiky outer layer
  • Hooks onto insects
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27
Q

Pollen transported by wind

A
  • Smaller, lighter & smoother than insect pollen
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28
Q

Self-pollination

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or to a different flower of the same plant

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29
Q

Advantages of self-pollination

A
  • Plants don’t have to rely on pollinators like insects
  • Plants can grow where pollinators don’t exist
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30
Q

Disadvantages of self-pollination

A
  • Reduces variation within the population
  • Increases vulnerability to environmental changes and disease
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31
Q

Cross-pollination

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species

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32
Q

Advantages of cross-pollination

A
  • Increases variation within the population
  • Reduces vulnerability to environmental changes and disease
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33
Q

Disadvantages of cross-pollination

A
  • Relies on pollinators to transport the pollen from one plant to another
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34
Q

Petals of wind-pollinated flowers

A
  • Small and usually dull in color due to a lack of needing to attract insects
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35
Q

Petals of insect-pollinated flowers

A
  • Large and brightly colored to attract insect pollinators
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36
Q

Anthers of wind-pollinated flowers

A
  • Loosely attached and dance outside the flower so pollen can be blown by wind
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37
Q

Anthers of insect-pollinated flowers

A
  • Located inside the flower to brush against insects
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38
Q

Stigma of a wind-pollinated flower

A
  • Loosely attached and dangle outside the flower to catch wind-borne pollen - feathery
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39
Q

Stigma of a insect-pollinated flower

A
  • Located inside the flower to brush against insects
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40
Q

Difference of nectar in insect & wind pollinated flowers

A
  • Nectar is produced in insect-pollinated flowers but not in wind-pollinated flowers
41
Q

Fertilization

A

When a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule

42
Q

How fertilization happens after pollination

A
  • Pollen the grows through the style to the ovary
  • Two male gametes move through the tube and reach an ovule
  • One nucleus of the two sperm cells fuses with the egg cell
  • Zygote forms and develops into an embryo
43
Q

Germination

A

The process by which a plant grows from a seed

44
Q

Needs of germination

A
  • Water
  • Oxygen
  • A suitable temperature
45
Q

Function of the testicles

A

Organ in which sperm cells and testosterone are produced

46
Q

Function of the scrotum

A

A sack of skin that contains the testicles, helping to keep them at a slightly lower temperature than the rest of the body

47
Q

Function of the prostate gland

A

Secretes fluid that nourished and protects sperm - mixture of liquid and sperm is semen

48
Q

Function of the sperm duct

A

Muscular tube that connects the testicles to the urethra

49
Q

Function of the urethra

A

Tube that allows the passage of semen and urine through the center of the penis

50
Q

Function of the penis

A

During sexual intercourse, the penis is inserted into the vagina, allowing sperm to transfer into the female reproductive system

51
Q

Function of the ovaries

A

To produce egg cells and the horses estrogen and progesterone

52
Q

Function of the oviducts/fallopian tubes

A

Tubes connecting ovaries to the uterus, fertilization occurs here

53
Q

Function of the uterus

A

Organ in which the embryo develops

54
Q

Function of the cervix

A

Ring of muscle between the vagina and the uterus

55
Q

Function of the vagina

A

Elastic muscular canal that a newborn passes through during childbirth & where a male’s penis is inserted in intercourse

56
Q

Fertilization in humans

A

The fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete/sperm and the nucleus of a female gamete/egg to form a zygote

57
Q

Structure of a sperm

A
  • Three parts: head, midpiece, flagellum
58
Q

Acrosome

A
  • Tip of a sperm head
  • Secretes digestive enzymes that allow the sperm to pass through the jelly coating of the surface of an egg cell
59
Q

Flagellum

A
  • Tail that lets the sperm cell move/propel the cell from one place to another
60
Q

Midpiece of sperm

A
  • Contains mitochondria
  • Release energy by respiration to help keep the flagellum moving
61
Q

Nucleus of an egg cell

A
  • Contains the mother’s DNA which will fuse with the father’s
62
Q

Cytoplasm of an egg cell

A
  • Contains energy stores to allow the egg to survive several of days and to nourish the zygote if fertilization occurs into the implant in the wall of the uterus
63
Q

Jelly coat of an egg cell

A
  • Allows sperm to attach
  • Creates a barrier from other sperm cells attaching one one has penetrated and entered the cell
64
Q

Follicular cells of an egg cell

A
  • Follicle cells attached to the egg to help nourish the egg in its journey
65
Q

Size comparison of an egg and sperm cell

A
  • Diameter of an egg cell is 0.1mm
  • Diameter of a sperm cell is 0.05mm
66
Q

Number comparison of egg and sperm cells

A
  • Female usually releases only one egg cell each month
  • Male can release 40M to 1.2B sperm in a single ejaculation
67
Q

Motility comparison of egg and sperm cells

A
  • Egg cells can’t move on their own
  • Sperm cells can move 1-3mm an hour
68
Q

Timing after fertilization before the embryo implants in the uterus wall

A

five days

69
Q

Timing between how long it takes for an embryo to become a fetus

A

8 weeks

70
Q

Function of the placenta

A
  • Transfers substances from the mother to the fetus
  • Transfers waste substances from the fetus to the mother so her body can excrete them
  • Barrier against toxins and pathogens the mother is exposed to (except for nicotine and other pathogens)
71
Q

Amniotic sac

A
  • Protective layer for the fetus
  • Full of amniotic fluid that contains nutrients needed by the fetus
72
Q

Umbilical cord

A

Attached the fetus to the placenta

73
Q

Exchange of materials between the fetus and placenta

A
  • Placenta provides oxygen, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water to grow
  • Fetus produces waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea
  • Blood of mother diffuses through capillaries between the placenta and umbilical cord
74
Q

Puberty

A

When a child’s body begins to change into an adult’s body

75
Q

Surge of male sex hormone in puberty

A

Testosterone

76
Q

Surge of female sex hormone in puberty

A

Estrogen

77
Q

Changes during puberty for males

A
  • Facial hair
  • Shoulders get wider
  • Voice deepens, voice box/Adam’s apple enlarges
  • Hair under the arms
  • Pubic hairs
  • Penis and testicles grow larger
78
Q

Changes during puberty for females

A
  • Breasts start to develop
  • Hair under the arms
  • Pubic hairs
  • Hip bones widen
79
Q

Frequency of eggs cells being released from ovaries

A
  • Once every 4 weeks (28 days)
  • Or anything between 21-40 days
80
Q

Ovulation

A
  • When the egg is released from the follicle
  • Happens around day 14
  • After ovulation the follicle develops into corpus luteum
81
Q

Lining of the uterus in the menstrual cycle

A
  • From day 4 the lining of the uterus thickens so the egg can implant if fertilized
  • If the egg is not fertilized the lining breaks down and is discharged as menstrual fluid (blood and other materials from the lining) - known as a period
82
Q

Duration of a period

A
  • Few days to a week
83
Q

Four hormones in control of the menstrual cycle

A
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • Luteinising hormone (LH)
  • Estrogen
  • Progesterone
84
Q

Where the four hormones of the menstrual cycle are secreted

A
  • Estrogen - Ovary
  • Progesterone - Corpus luteum in an ovary
  • FSH & LH - Pituitary gland
85
Q

Effect of FSH in the menstrual cycle

A

Causes an egg in an ovary to mature

86
Q

Effect of LH in the menstrual cycle

A

Stimulates the release of a mature egg

87
Q

Effect of estrogen & progesterone in the menstrual cycle

A

Involved in painting the lining of the uterus

88
Q

How FSH interacts in the menstrual cycle

A

Stimulates the ovary to secrete estrogen

89
Q

How estrogen & progesterone interact in the menstrual cycle

A

Inhibit the release of FSH & LH

90
Q

How levels of the four menstrual cycle hormones change

A
  • Start - progesterone is low - releases FSH
  • FSH rises - causes egg to mature - stimulates release of estrogen
  • Estrogen rises - releases FSH & later LH
  • LH rises - releases the mature egg from its follicle at day 14
  • Empty follicle become corpus luteum - progesterone produced
  • Progesterone rises - Release of FSH & LH
91
Q

Hormones during pregnancy

A

0 Corpus letup continues to release estrogen and progesterone until week around 8-12 weeks where placenta takes over production of hormones

92
Q

Placenta function with hormone production

A
  • Ensures no more eggs are released
  • Maintains thick uterine lining to support growing fetus
  • Prevents muscles of uterus from contracting
93
Q

Examples of virus STIs

A
  • Genital warts
  • herpes
  • HIV
94
Q

STI

A

Sexually transmitted infection

95
Q

Examples of bacterium STIs

A
  • Chlamydia
  • Gonorrhea
  • Syphilis
96
Q

Barrier methods for protection

A

Reduce the chance of coming into contact with infected body fluids

96
Q

Examples of barrier methods

A

Female & male condoms

96
Q

HIV

A

Human immunodeficiency virus

97
Q

AIDS

A

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Biology IGCSE (21 decks)

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