Unit 1 Terms Flashcards
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking allows one to evaluate the validity of a claim. This style of thinking is neither gullible nor cynical, and is thus open to new ideas while retaining a healthy amount of skepticism. Critical thinking is essential for uncovering the truth—not as it is believed to be, but as it really is.
Empiricism
The idea that what we know comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
Structuralism
An early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Introspection
The process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
Functionalism
An early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
Humanistic Psychology
A historically significant perspective that emphasizes human growth potential and the idea that all people are inherently good.
Cognitive Psychology
The scientific exploration of how we perceive, process, and remember information and of how thinking and emotion interact in anxiety, depression, and other disorders
Cognitive Neuroscience
A combination of cognitive psychology and neuroscience in which researchers study the brain activity underlying mental activity
Psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
Nature-Nurture Issue
The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Natural Selection
The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other traits variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection; how behavior and the mental processes that underly it helped humans survive and reproduce
Supported by David Buss, Martin Daly, Margo Wilson, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby
Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Culture (term)
The shared ideas and behaviors passed along through generations. Significant in shaping our behavior and beliefs
Positive Psychology
The scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
An approach followed by researchers such as Martin Seligman
Biopsychosocial Approach
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints and offers a better understanding than any single theoretical perspective (humanistic, psychodynamic, etc.)
Behavioral Psychology
How we learn observable responses
Biological Psychology
How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences.
Supported by James Olds, Roger Sperry, David Hubel, and Torsten Weisel
Psychodynamic Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Social-Cultural Psychology
How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also known as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
SQ3R
A study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behavior or events; how x affects y
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
Case Study
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Sampling Bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Correlation
When one trait or behavior tends to coincide with another
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical measure of how closely two things vary together
Variable
Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
Illusory Correlation
Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
Regression towards the mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (the independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
Double-Blind Procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Independent Variable
The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Validity
The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Informed Consent
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Histogram
A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Skewed Distribution
A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer near the extremes
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize–to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
