Truman Eisenhower kennedy Johnson Nixon Flashcards
What are trumans obstacles
Overseeing final defeats of Germany and Japan
Managing US role in post-war international relations, supervising the American economy’s transition from war time to peace time footing
Maintaining unity of a fractious and powerful democrat party
Being FDR shadow
Lacking FDR charisma and public speaking kills
Truman’s main attributes
Not radica like Waller - southern democrat
Public related to him
Hard workin and honest
Made politically difficult decisions
Truman’s experience in Missain politics and especially 2 electoral victories that brought him to senate —> demonstrated different understanding of Liberian and democrat party
Change in executive with truman since FDR
By 1946, replaced many of the cabinet with his own
Several well known members of FDRs team - like Harry Hopkins did not join the Truman administration
CEA formed
1946 employment act created the CEA to help the president formulate economic policy;
Liberal Democrat’s in congress wanted CEA to be staffed with liberal new dealers and progressives
Truman staffed it w conservatives and liberals
He treated the CEA as presidential advisors and made sure it remained under his control
Continuity in executive with truman since FDR
Truman began by asking FDR cabinet to stay sane but changed
Inherited Roosevelt staff of presidential advisors
Presidents staff continued to grow in size
CEA—> Truman wanted power over it and have it under his control - executive
How Truman dealt with military to civilisation.
Consumer goods on high demand were slow to appear on national shelves and its showrooms, frustrating Americans who wanted to purchase items they had forsaken during war
Congress preserved Office of Price Administration but stripped it of all its power
Truman veto
As controls disappears - mid 1946 - prices shot upwards, the rise in the price of meat - doubled over 2 week period in summer
In response the government reinstituted price controls, which angered meat producers who then withheld meat from market
Combination of high prices and scarcity angered consumers and voters who blamed Truman
ANGER
How Truman dealt with unions
1945 truman announced he would maintain price controls but unions could pursue higher wages
Though 1946 and mate 1945- strikes from steel, coal and railroads
To end strikes, recommended mediation and warned gov would draft striking railroad workers and even took a Union. - United miners to court
Miners backed down and went to work
Truman damages relationship
How Truman dealt with reconversion - dealing w issues to go back from war
Called for new public work programs
‘full employment”, Bill- employment act 1946- measure had 0 teeth
a higher minimum wage - congress against
extension Of FEPC (a War time agency that monitored discrimination against African Americans in hiring practices of government agencies and defence industries) - congress against
Larger social security system
National health insurance system
Quick demobilisation of military
Temporary extension of government controls tuttered and stalled
Truman received blame
Rapid reconversion would have been difficult due to variety and challenge of its objectives
Increased production of consumer goods, full employment, higher wages, lower prices and peace between labour unions and industrial management
How did Truman deal with trade unions
Or did he blame it on anyone
Said he would maintain price controls but Union could demand higher prices
1946- wave of strikes like steel
He recommended compulsorily mediation - warned US government would draft striking railroads
Took United Mine workers to court
Unions backed down
Republicans passed Taft Hartley Bill- limited power of unions
Trauma vetoed- went too far
Congress overrode
Blame shift to republicans
How did truman deal with food prices and did he get support or shift blame
Americans wanted to purchase what they were unable to during war
Food prices rising
Truman suggested a return to price controls, knowing congress republicans would reject
Republicans passed legislation mandating economic controls and rationing,
which Truman signed, though he declared ‘pitifully inadequate’
Truman made inflation a republicans problem
How did truman deal with welfare and did he achieve support or shift blame etc
In his 21 point plan - said- larger social security system, national health insurance and demobilisation of army
BUT REPUBLICANS AND SOUTHERN DEMS HATED
He wanted new public work programmes - employment act 1946- measure had no teeth - were not effective
How did truman deal with civil rights and did he achieve support or shift blame etc
Truman - 21 point plant FEPC- war time agency that monitored discrimination against African Americans in hiring practices of government agencies and defence agencies)
Southern Democrats hated it
1948 election results
Everyone though Dewey would win
But despite democrats division with states right dem who got 4 states including Alabama, he won
He therefore did not need the Deep South
What was the success of Truman’s fair deal
Truman won passage of moderately effective public housing and slum-clearance Bill 1949
Increase in minimum wage
Significant expansion of social security 1950
Obstacles of Truman’s fair deal
Southern Democrats filibustered any attempt to push forward civil rights legislations
Failures of Truman’s fair deal
National health insurance and Taft Hartley went no where in congress
Truman’s agricultural program ‘Bannana plan’ designed to aid the family farmer by providing income support - hindered
Economic growth during Truman’s time in power
Unemployment and inflation rose durin first 6 months of 1649
Truman wanted high taxes and limited spending
Gave tax break to businesses as economy stalled
Economy responded by peeking up 1950
Truman’s actions showed primary concern was healthy economic growth
How did truman deal with Eco
US officials hoped government intervention would keep unemployment and inflation under control, stabilise wages and prices and increase military related industrial production
1950 - truman- congressional passage of defence of production act and issued an executive order created the office of defence mobilisation
This proceeded with few hitches
- unemployment stayed low
Inflation remained in check
But many Americans complained about the governments intervention in the economy, esp its controls on credit
Truman
Issue with steel industry
Faced possible shit down as labour and management could not agree on a new contract
Government mediation during 1st several months of 1952 failed to end stalemate
Truman’s objectives = Avert strike, maintain steel production and stay on good terms with labour
Truman used presidential authority to seize steel companies
What was Truman’s response to the red scare
How was communism dealt with
Truman created a temporary loyalty security program for the federal government to uncover security risks like communists
5 months later, Truman issued an executive order making the program permanent
(HUAC) formed 1938, launched an investigation of Hollywood screenwriters and directors in 1947
2 spy cases intensified concerns over communism. 1948, Whitaker Chambers, former communist and editor of time magazine accused Roosevelt aids and state department official Alger Huss of being soviet spy
HUAC investigated this, complete with dramatic testimony from Hiss and Chambers
Less than a month after Buss was convicted of Perjury 1950
Fuchs - scientist working on manhattan project charged and convicted with passing A-bomb secrets to Soviet’s with help of American citizens ——> surprising as Soviets successfully testing atomic bomb 1949- years before ability too
McCarthy argues state department had loads of communists
Truman tried calm hysteria ‘McCarthyism’- president denounced what senator said
Military engagement in Korea and defeats US suffered there only strengthened McCarthy hand
McCartan passed Internal Security Act - restrictions on political activities of communists in US through congress
Truman vetoed buy Congress overrode
How did truman appear on communism and how was he argued
Calm
Said ‘soft’
Level of corruption during Truman’s presidency
Loads of corruption
Some members of his administration did participate in ethically questionable if not illegal activities
Truman’s military aide Vaughan often centre of these allegations. - sought gov favours from friends and business mnenv
1950- democrat senator Fulbright headed an investigation on Vaughan’s activities - finding Vaughn guilty of only minor ethical and legal breaches
Only a few of these questionable or illegal acitivities involved Truman administration officials directly; much of the corruption also involved republicans
Truman’s critics exaggerated corruption
Truman condoned Vaughan’s aciticities
Truman and many administration blamed McGrath who had proven to be more competent as head of justice system. Truman gave Mcarth one more chance - failed - 1952 Truman told him to resign
Bad publicity and corruption :(. Mcgrath successor McGranery did effectively address scandal
Why did Truman not run 1952
Korean War, battles over eco mobilisation, McCarthyism , and allegations of corruption in his administration sapped his will to run for 3rd term.
Public opinion polls however unreliable showed Truman faced an uphill battle to win re-election
Truman campaigner hard for Stevenson and ruined relationship with Eisenhower
Reasons for affluence
Automobiles
Corporations
Television
Unions
Middle class
Cold War
New technology
Workers
Immigration
How did automobiles cause affluence
1950 alone - 8 million cars produced
1960 75% owned car
New highways crater better access to suburbs and its shops.- highway act 1956 further allowed this
How did corporations allow affluence
After 1945- major corporation in America grew larger
Marchers
New conglomerates led way. International telephone and telegraph bought Sheraton hotel
Large corporations also developed holding overseas - when labour costs often lower
How did televisions allow affluence
Not widely marketed until after war
1949-250,000 sets of TV sets a month
In middle of decade- average family watched television 3/4 hours a day
Mickey Mouse club
I love Lucy and father knows - removed stereotype of women
1960- Americans spent $85bilkion s year on entertainment, double the spending of previous decade
How did union movement allow affluence
Union movement ended 1955 with merging on AFL and CIO.
Workers in many industries won settlements that linked wages to cost of living increases
Number of women working outside hone inc
1960/ 40% women joined workforce
And married women w school age children included
How did middle class contribute to affluence
50s= prosperity
Even w 3 recessions during 8 years of Eisenhower’s administration - country’s per capita income rose and inflation remained low
Eisenshower prepared to increase spending to get country out of 1953, 57 + 58 recessions
How did Cold War lead to affluence
Cold War and war in Korea required enourmoud military spending
Certain industries like aerospace industry boomed after war - companies like Lockheed etc employed thousands of people, many of them in high paying engineering and technical occupations
How did new technology lead to affluence
New technologies boosted productivity in both industrial and agricultural sectors
Farm income increased. Cotton at least doubled
Americans’ foreign investment relatively static between world wars, but in 15 years following WW2- it increased 1000% investment in raw materials and resources like oil played a large part in this boom
How did workers lead to affluence
Workers found their own lives changing as industrial America changed
Fewer workers produced goods; more provided services
By 1956 a majority held white collar jobs - working as eg corporate managers
Some firms granted a guaranteed annual wage, long term employment contracts and other benefits
Class distinctions began to fade
How did mass migration lead to affluence
GI bill (44) encouraged mass migration Gave 9m veterans £b until 1956 and loans to 1962
By 1950, 50% college applicants were veterans and gave low cost mortgages, tuition and medical care
By 1960, roughly 40% of all Americans lived in suburbs
Cities like New Mexico expanded rapidly
By 1963 California had more people than ny
Movement of people from inner city to new suburbs - post baby boom
Levitt - new communities
Homes modest
As suburbs grew- large shopping centres containing variety of stores changed consumer patterns
How did affluence reasons link
Migration - technology - workers - consumers blah blah blah
What was ‘the other america’
Post war era = anxiety and struggle
During 1950s- AA quickened pace of struggle for equality by challenging segregation in court.
New youth culture emerged w its own form of music - rock and roll.
Harrington’s ‘The Other America (1962) documented poverty in the US and revealed that by 1960, 35 million Americans lived below poverty line
Despite expansion of social security - older Americans often lived in substandard housing with inadequate housing and food and medical care
Poverty not recognised as problem until 60s
Bracero program bought Mexican workers to US to work on American farms.
Although - expected to return to Mexico at end of Harvest or labour contract - many opted to stay and become illegal aliens.
Millions deported 1953-55
Women continued earning less then men. Magazines such as ‘Life’ dent message that women should focus on creating beautiful home and raising family
NA who experienced policy of termination of self determination in 50s and early 60s pressed for control over their lands and resources , the preservation of native culture and tribal self government
Homosexuals and lesbians organised to end legal discrimination based on sexual orientation
Eisenhower election
Won
Florida And Tennessee Republican
Why was the Eisenhower years known as ‘happy days’
Enjoying benefits of booming economy
Millions of families for first television and second cars
Young people went to drive in movies and followed latest fashion- poodle skirts
Why was ‘happy days’ a myth
Difficult decisions w civil rights
Communism
Domestic affair controversial issues
Define modern republicanism
A more moderate course which preserved individuals freedom and the market economy yet insured gov would intervene to assist those who lost jobs or to ill or aged could not provided for themselves
Overview of Eisenhower’s modern republicanism
Legislation which expanded social security, increased minimum wage and created department of health, education and welfare
Supported gov construction of low income housing but favoured more limited spending than had Truman
Interstate highway program 1956- 40,000 mile road system
Who was hostile towards Eisenhower’s modern republicanism
Senator gold water
‘A dime store new deal’
Didn’t like new deal either
How did modern republicanism change during last years as president
Eisenhower often got his way in congress esp during 1st term - but last years as president - w Democrats in control of house and senate - congress spent more for domestic programs than Eisenhower would have preferred
President veto to block expensive programmes but domestic spending still rose substantially
Size of economy declined 20-18% (during Eisenhower’s years)
Positive legacy of economy during Eisenhower
Unemployment generally low and inflation 2% or less
Moderate success 3/8 budgets were on the blacks
Wage earners- prosperity
Personal income rose 45%
Poverty rate Dec
Negative legacy of economy during Eisenhower
1/5 Americans in poverty
40 mill Americans poor when Eisenhower left office
South= half of country’s poor families
1950s- poverty inc in north -> migration of AA who left south for city like Chicago as new farm machines took jobs.
New AA - urban- settle for low paying employment - discrimination
Children and adults more likely to experience poverty than 18-65 year olds
McCarthyism v Eisenhower
How did it end
McCarthy said Truman soft on communism
Media gave McCarthy loads of attention - 1954- 60% had televisions
Eisenhower worries about communists but disliked McCarthy methods and guilty until proven innocent
McCarthy said communist influence in army - Eisenhower outraged as he served most like there
Eisenhower - quietly against McCarthy - tv - a lawyer working for army ‘have you no sense of decency?’- millions agreed
Eisenhower civil rights
GOOD
Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice.- hopes Warren would be conservative on civil rights
Little Rock nine
1957- first civil rights leg since reconstruction
- provides new federal protection for voting rights
- In south AA poll tax literacy test etc
- but leg Eisenhower deigned weaker than Bill he sent to Capitol Hill
- southern dem secured Amendment that era jury trial to determine whether citizen denied right to vote. But in southern states AA no serve on jury’s - not in their favour
1960- second civil rights law
Only small advances over earlier law
President also used constitutional powers where he believed they were clear specific to advance desegregation eg in federal facilities in nations capital to complete desegregation of the armed forces began during Truman’s presidency
Eisenhower appointed judges to federal court who’s rulings helped advance civil rights
Explain Little Rock
Eisenhower X like racial issues- but couldn’t avoid
Brown v board of education 1954- racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional —> NEVER SPOKE IN FAVOUR OF IT
Faunus - Governor prevented desecration of Little Rock high school
After meeting w Eisenhower - agreed to let in
Then he withdrew national guard - allowed violent mob
Eisenhower dispatched federal troops- enforce law
FIRST TIME SINCE RECON PRES SENT MILITSRY FORCES IN SOUTH TO ENFORCE FEDERAL LAW
he said in a televised address X letting Little Rock - Harming US prestige and giving communists propaganda to misrepresent nation
1958/Central high = first AA graduate
But in sept 1958- Faunus closed public schools to prevent integration
Eisenhower said :( but did nothing
When Eisenhower left White House - only 6% AA students attended interstates schools
Eisenhower civil rights BAD
Urged advocates of desegregation to go slowly
Sympathetic to white southerners who said lives changing too much
Only once 1958- meet with AA leaders - became irritated when he heard appeals for aggressive federal action to advance civil rights
Didn’t use MLK junior advice - use bulky pulpit - popular support for civil rights
JFK election
58% electoral vote
Popular vote - v close
W independent power
Success of JFK civil rights
Gave more important gov jobs to AA than any other president before him and created the Commission on equal employment opportunity
Kennedy submitted civil rights bill to congress which became law after he died - slaves grandchildren not free from injustice
Helped Meredith - black Mississippian Athens white university of Mississippi. She enrolled 1962- but was violence
1963 equal pay act - apparently helped feminist movement
Failure of JFK civil rights
CEEO only helped those who already had gov job and did nothing to find jobs for millions of unemployed AA
He tried to get MLK not to do match on Washington
No women in cabinet
Success of JFK economy
JFK cut taxes making $900 mill available to businesses to create new jobs and gave grants to companies to buy high tech equip and train workers to use it
Failure of JFK economy
New equipment meant that fewer workers were needed so some people lost jobs
Also many of new jobs created by gov required a lot of money to run, so they were vulnerable to spending cuts
1963- 4.5 mill unemployed
Success of JFK healthcare and poverty
JFK created training schemes for the unemployment and his social security act increased benefits for the elderly and unemployed
Failure of JFK healthcare and poverty
JFK inc minimum wage from $1-$1.45 an hour - but this was only helpful to those who were in work
He made $5 billion available for loans and improving houses but these were only helpful if you could afford loan repayments
Success of JDK education
Established peace corps which was an organisation that sent volunteers abroad to assist people in poorer countries working as teachers, nurses, doctors and technical advisors
Failure of JFK education
His effforts to provide federal funds for schools were denied
Southern politicians refused to support his plans
JFK environment
Clean air act
Started tackle enviro issues
JFK most significant obstacles
Took office in depth of 4 major recession since WW2
Some dem conservative. A Republican coalition with conservative dem blocked Kennedy’s proposal for school construction, teacher salaries and scholarships
Civil rights - violence etc
Meredith
JFK legacy
Civil rights bill
Overall Johnson
Vast amount of money into schools
Federal fund to Catholic schools
Medicare - health expenses for senior citizens
Johnson’s great society
Overview
Environmental protection laws
Influential immigration act
Bill to provide consumers with some protection against shoddy goods and dangerous products
To address inequality in education - vast amounts of money poured into colleges to fund certain students and projects and into federal aid for elementary and secondary education
Federal fund to catholic schools
Department of housing and urban development formed - weaver = first AA in cabinet to head it
Johnson won passage of Medicare - federal funding of many health care expenses for senior citizens. The medically indigent of any age who could afford access to health care would be covered under a related ‘Medicaid’ program funded in part by national government and run by states under their welfare programs
Why did LBJ issue a war on poverty
US not done enough
47-56 —> poverty line dropped 11%
56-62 —> poverty line dropped 2%
Unemployment - black youth 25%- less at that time then white youths - though it had been only 8% 20 years before
Who would not like war on poverty
Republicans
Great successes of Great Society
CAA agency - supervise agencies providing social services, mental health services, health services m, employment etc
Eco opportunity Act BUT REPUB AGAINST
Head Start Program of early education for poor children, the legal services Corporation, providing legal aid to poor families and various health care programs run out of neighbourhood clinics and hospitals
Medicare and Medicaid
19 mill members 1966
57 mill today
Better health care
Reduced poverty, break racial caste system
Failures of great society
CAA - local communities activists wanted power over it
In 1967- Congress given this - discouraged tendencies towards radicalism towards CAA
Voting rights act - riots
Vietnam
Ordering FBI to spy on domestic opponents, inc civil rights leaders, anti war groups, “black power” advocates and even R Kennedy
Controversy surrounding war on poverty hurt democrats - contributing to their defeat in 1968 and engendering deep antagonism from racial, fiscal and cultural conservatives
Johnson civil rights positive
As senator - moderate on race issues - part of effort to give civil rights to AA
Did a lot for safe passage of 57+60 civil rights act as leader of house
Passed JFK proposed 1964 civil rights act ending segregation in public facilities
Following year- Civil right activists focussed on denial of voting rights in South (since 1890s) 1965- black demonstrators in Selma Alabama, marching for voting rights were attacked my police dogs and bested bloody scenes came on national telivison
SO
Johnson passed Voting Rights Act 65- abolish literacy tests in counties where voting rates below certain threshold which covered most south.
Turnout tripled within 4 years - v close to white turnout in south
Many conservatives left demo party in opp to Johnson civil rights. Joined Republican Party
Johnson civil rights negative
64&5 civil rights act not enough to stop de facto and north poverty, attitudes and structural racism that Vietnam war revealed
64-8 race riots from black youth
68 MLK. Assassinated
Johnson appointed Kerner Commision to look into why so much unrest - blamed inequality and racism for riots
1966 urban riots and rising crime - mourning opp to his policy in Vietnam’s - approval ratings 35% 67&68
Was civil rights or great society more successful
Great society
Nixon’s election victory
States - landslide 49/50
What happened to unemployment within a year of Nixon’s presidency
Unemployment doubled 69-70
3-6
What happened to GDP within a year of Nixon’s presidency
Decreased sig
When did the Vietnam’s war end
1973
When was the recessions in the 70s
70+74
What is stagflation and gradualism
During Nixon’s administration
Period of high inflation and unemployment - stagflation
Unemployment was unusually low when Nixon took office 1969 (3%) but inflation was rising
Nixon adopted policy called Gradualism -restricting growth of money supply to reign in economic boom during Johnson
Explain gradualism - did it work and how did the economy turn out
Did not produce quick results
Inflation wasn’t solved
By end of 1970 unemployment rose to 6% :(
Burns of federal reserve asserted his independence by giving the president an ultimatum. If Nixon failed to hold federal spending under $200 billion, Burns would continue to keep the money supply tight to fight inflation
To save money Nixon delayed pay raises to federal employees by 6 months
One result was strike by nationals postal workers
1971- 6% unemployed
1971- Nixon gathered all economic advisors and formed New Economic Policy.- went against principle but dramatic turnout - tax cuts, temp close of gold window etc. 10% import tax
Why did Nixon win next election victory
New economic policy
Why did Nixon’s new economic policy not work
1973
Expansive fiscal and monetary policies combined with shortage of food (aggravated by massive soviet purchases of American wheat) to fuel inflation
And then came oil shock.
Oil prices rising even before onset of Arab oil boycott in 1973
When Nixon left office - economy was in the tank, rising unemployment and inflation, lengthening gas lines and crashing stock market
Steins commentary
More regulation imposed on economy than any other president since new deal
OHSA- occupational safety and health administration - 1970 to prevent on job accidents and death
EPA- environmental protection agency and NOAA to sign amendments to the 1967 clear air act for reduction in auto mobiles
1972 noise control act
1974 safe drinking water act
1972 marine mammal protection act
BUT billions of dollars needed to implement clean air act - :(
Nixon proposed National health insurance programme - prompted health maintenance organisations
Loads of welfare - negative income tax - safety net for poor and a financial incentive for welfare recipients to work
Also proposed expansion of food stamp programme
Supplement security income - guaranteed income for elderly and disabled citizens
Watergate
Impact of pentagon papers 1974
Leaked
Proved administrations from Truman to Johnson had intentionally expanded Vietnam’s war efforts in contrast to what public told
Watergate
Nixon’s major worry
Hault leaks
Scared - prevent his re election
Watergate
Impact of CRP
Used questionable and illegal means to achieve goals
-eg Mitchess kept fund to subsidise info gathering on Dem
Plan- to steak info from Dem national committee
Watergate
What happen to Eden June 1974
During 2nd break in burgalers arrested
FBI linked to Hunt
What was Nixon’s reaction to the arrest after 2nd break in
Tried to cover
Ordered Chief of staff to get CIA to block further FBI investigation into finances behind break in
Denied involvement
Watergate
June 20- what HAPOENED
Who’s deepthroat
Washington post journalist Bob Woodworsb- reporter on hunch connection - confirmation from annoymous source - Deepthroat - unrattled Watergate - implicated justice department, FBI, CIA, and White House
Deepthroat was felt (found out 2003)
Watergate
What happened mid 1973
Top investigation - proved connection of watergate burglary, CRP, Whitehouse
Deen said Nixon knew about it…had tapes around White House
Watergate
Why weren’t tapes released
‘Executive privilege’ - Nixon said
Watergate
What was Saturday night massacre
Nixon ‘dismisses attorney general, his deputy and Cox
Public outcry
Nov- Nixon ‘Well I’m not a crook’
Watergate
What happened March 1974
Watergate - 7 indicted
Many prison
Nixon windited!!!??
Watergate
What happened July 1974
Watergate tapes released
18 mins erased
Some received hush money to keep quiet
Watergate
Smoking gun tape?
Proved Nixon knew since mid 1972
Forced to step down / impeached
Watergate
What happened August 8 1974
Resign - replaced by Ford
Watergate
September 1974
Ford pardoned him (mid term?!)
Impact of watergate
Turning point
Arrests
New laws made !
New interest it investigative journalism
First resignation of US president
Pres —> less power m
Changed US politics forever
