Foreign Policy 1865-1920 Flashcards
Manifest destiny
Belief WASPS mission to expand their civilisations and institutions across breadth of North America
Isolation
A policy of remaining part from the affairs or interests of other groups esp political affairs of other countries
Colonialism
America full of partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers and exploiting it economically
Colony
Country governed internally by a foreign power
Protectorate
Country with its own internal gov but under the control of an outside power
Sphere of influence
Area in which an outside power claims exclusive investment or trading privileges
Perclusive imperialism
Getting involved with another country - possibly taking it over - mostly to stop another country from doing so
Overall US politics before 1890
Seeking to keep America free of wars
Defensive
Seeking to keep America free of diplomatic tangles - steering clear of alliances
Seeking to keep clear of imperialism
Grant on foreign policy
1865 Grant wrote to his sister - reflected feeling of manifest destiny
Belief on continentalism (the consolidation of US to occupy North American continent) went hand it hand w belief in America as future world power
Specific reasons for making America look inward
Sense of American exceptionalism and desire to avoid international entanglements with Old Europe went back to founding father principles
Relations w Britain were complicated by tensions over US Canada border
Britain supported Confederacy during Civil war
Spain was anxious to protect its colonial empire against US expansion
Conservative regimes such as Austria-Hungarian Empire feared dangerous ideas of American democracy
Americans were hostile to interference of Mexico prompted by Emperor Napoleon 111 of France
Name continental expansion till 1865
1803 Louisiana Purchase
1818 Florida ceded by Spain
1830s - 45 American settled pushed through annexation of Texas
1846- Mexican War gained new territories in California and South West
1840s Oregan Trail enabled settlers to cross Great Plains and start new settlements in Pacific North West
After 1865- Vast new territories incorporated in US- Alaska, GReat Plains and far west
What was continentalism before 1865
Justified by
Reconciliation needed after civil war
Stabilisation of relations between Mexico and Canada
Order and stability to west
Complete the territorial consolidation of the nation
What is the concept of isolation
Relative term
Strands-
Anti colonialism
Geographical location - sense of seperation by ocean
Land of free - refuge from persecution
Underpinned by 1823 Monroe Doctrine
What President was the monroe doctrine made under
Monroe was
Who was Secretary of State during Monroe Doctrine formation
John Quincy Adams
What was America concerned with before Monroe Doctrine
Intervention from other European countries
What did the Monroe Doctrine do
Warn other countries - USA will remain neutral unless they intervene in US sphere on which case US will be involved
It became a vital foundation in American US foreign policy
Monroe Doctrine during civil war and after
Used in response to the attempt by France and Austria to establish an empire in Mexico
During civil war - seemed likely Archduke Maximilian would establish a secure imperial rule in Mexico
Once civil war over - there were furious protests from Congress and Press to stop foreign invasion
Grant and other generals wanted army to be sent to Mexico to defend Monroe Doctrine
Mexico
How did America react to France’s attempt to establish an empire in Mexico
Furious protests from Press and Congress against foreign invasions
Mexico -
How did this relate to the Monroe Doctrine
Represented a European power intervening in US hemisphere which Monroe Doctrine Warned not to do
Mexico
Who wanted military action
Grant and other army generals
Mexico - what did Secretary of State Seward do
Opted to rely on diplomatic pressure instead
Carefully avoided upon conflict
Mexico
How did the incident end
France lost interest
Mexicans fought a guerilla war and won
Mexico
What is the significance of this incident
Indication of Monroe Doctrine - importance and status and power
Can be an example of USA wanting to avoid being involved to a certain extent
When was France and Austria trying to invade Mexico
1862-1867
Seward
Wanted diplomatic pressure in Mexico
Seward pursuer an ambitious interventionist foreign policy, acquiring naval bases in the Caribbean and across the Ishnis of Panama
Many of these schemes failed to materialise but he did gain Midway Island in Pacific and Alaska Purchase
Died in 1869- successor was Fisk
When was Alaska Purchase
1867
Was the acquisition of Alaska planned or opportunist
Opportunist
Alaska - why did Russia change their policy
The Russian American company became a drain on resources
Russia feared US might just try seize the territory anyway
How much did America purchase Alaska for
$7.2 million
What was the initial reaction to the Alaska Purchase
Denounced my politicians and press as foolish expensive mistake
Alaska
How did the initial reaction to the purchase of it change
Strong commercial links were established to Wear Coast Ports like Seattle and SAN Francisco
The economic potential of the region for fish fur mining and logging became widely recognised even before
ALASKA YUKON GOLD RUSH LATE 1890s
There was further dispute w Alaska but this resolved 1903
What were the complication in Canada
In 1865 Canada like US was an unfinished nation w tenuous links to west
The US-Canadian border has been agreed by treaties in 1842-6
However, this only covered Eastern Canada from Great Lakes to Atlantic
The west was an open question
3 issues causing tension in Canada
Fenian Raids
Red River Colony
Western Canadian province of British Columbia
What is the Irish Republican Brotherhood
A secret revolutionary group founded in Dublin by Stephens
Mohomy headed its American wing- known as the Fenian brotherhood - who’s ultimate goal was to free Ireland from British rule
While the IRB original ambitions were limited in Ireland itself, a militant Fenian faction led by Roberts advocated extending war of liberation to British North America
What were the aims of the Fenian Brotherhood
Wanted to enter negotiations with British empire to exchange Canada for Ireland’s independence
More realistic members of Fenian Brotherhood understood this was far fetched
They focussed instead on possibility that the attack could precipitate war or at least cause enough disturbance to force British empire to reinforce Canada w large number of regular troops
Either of these - favourable climate for armed uprising in Ireland itself
When was the Fenian Raids
1866-1871
Explain the Fenian raids
5 of them
Initially US turned a blind eye because of Alabama Claims. This was because of the apparent support given by British Canadians to the Confederacy during Civil War
For example - the Union objected to the building of Confederate ships in British docklands
Negotiations to settle this began and issue was settled with 1872 compensation
Explain the 1872 compensation
US gov took action against Fenians
Raids aroused genuine fear of American annexation
These fears pushed the Canadian provinces to join together in a national confederation
A 2nd area of dispute was the Red River Colony
Americans saw the fertile red river as ideal settlement and wanted to extend American control northwards
Tensions ran high 1866-70
How did Steward escalate the imperialism after the 1872 compensation
After purchase of Alaska- 1867-seemed American annexation of entire Pacific coast might occur
Seward was an annexationalist and he and many Canadians were confident British Columbia would voluntarily become part of US
Eventually- fears of annexation filled by commitment to built national railroad to connect British Columbia w rest of nation
Completed 1866- fears of annexation abated
From 1871- tensions were generally low apart from Alaska boundary issue- amicably revolted 1903
Who was Blaine
Secretary of State 1881+1889-92
Leading republican pres candidate 1884
By 1881- wanted to promote freeer trade esp within Western Hemisphere
Blaine under Garfield and Harrison emphasised ‘Good Neighbour Policy’ creates bilateral treaties to secure US trade
Explain United Fruit
In guilded age - US companies like United Fruit became largest land wonders and employers on many central US nations
US business and Latin America
US business flooded Latin America with goods, brought raw materials and undercut local Latin American business
When was the Pan-American Conference
1889
What is another name for the pan American conference
First international conference of American states
Explain the pan-American conferences
Established the Americas as a loose affiliation of nations
Blaine developed ideas for conference which he hoped would establishes new diplomatic ties between different nations of America’s
His reasons:
Blaine’s wariness of British interference in America was strong - he saw inc trade with Latin America as the best way to keep Britain from dominating region
He believed by encouraging exports, he could increase American prosperity.
Garfield agreed with him and Blaine called for Pan American conference 1882 to mediate disputes among Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increased trade
What was the initiation of the Panama Canal
At same time - Blaine hopes to negotiate a peace in War of Pacific then being fought by Bolina, Chile and Peru
Blaine sought to expand US influence in other areas calling for renegotiation or Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, allowing US to construct a canal through Panama w/out British involvement in strategically located Kingdom of Hawaii
His plans for US involvement in world stretched beyond Western Hemisphere as he sought commercial treaties wit Korea and Madagascar
By 1882- new secretaries reversed Blaine’s Latin American initiatives
(Ferlinghusen and Bayard)
What did construction of the Panama Canal lead to?
Important trade routes to Asia
1865-1890
Evidence of isolationism
Seward did opt to rely on diplomatic pressure on Mexico against France
Monroe Doctrine - stay out of European affairs and neutral
No US troops staying outside national boundaries in 1870,80 or 90s
1865-1890 evidence of future imperialism
Call for military intervention against France in Mexico
Monroe Doctrine potential to intervene
Manifest destiny arguably a form of imperialism
Territorial consolidation in this period
What was the National Myth
Settling of ‘empty west’ and a giant leap forward for modernity and progress fulfilling a civilising mission
Natives were noble savages and a barrier to progress
Natives were depicted as racially and culturally inferior and a problem for gov
What was the reality for native Americans
Numerous nations - each with own ways and customs - own ancestral land own political and social structures
How was conquest and colonisation of west made possible
War, treaties, executive decisions by gov enforced by US army
By 1871 how many key battles occurred
101- the worst up to this period was Sand Creek Massacre in Colorado 1874
Native Americans
Phase 1: recognise Indian nations and make ‘equal peace treaties’ with them
Treaty of medicine lodge 1867
- 3 treaties between Indian Peace Commission set up by Congress and the Indian Nation of Southern Plains
The result was new border intention - to ensure control over white encroachment onto native land
Treaty of Fort Laramie 1866-68 was similar -
It was established w Scoux Nation after Redclouds War 1866-68
Lead by Red Clouds to stop white encroachment (invasion on territory)
Native Americans
Phase 2:
Shifts to ‘reservation or assimilation (WASPS) requiring Natives to accept life in demarcate reservations or assimilate as citizens
Requires natives to accept life on reservations or to assimilate as citizens
In part- intended to protect natives from exploitation and corruption
Grant appointed Quaker missionaries as agents to ensure higher ethical standards
From 1877- Hayes and Schurtz (Secretary of Interior) continued to reform Bureau of Indian Affairs to root out corruption
Result was some improvement but agents were often unable to enforce their authority over white settlers
Attitudes still remained that Natuves were culturally inferior
How were native found in a cycle of white power
Initiation of conflict by white settlers
Decision by US gov and Bureau of Indian affairs
US army
3 main theatres of war leading to 1877 and establishment of US military control
Native Americans
Great Plains and North West:
1874 Apache Wars ended when Cochise agreed a peace treaty
Breaches of 1868 peace treaty by white settlers and gold prospectors led to renewers wars in the Black Hills and to a major defeat of US army at Battle of Little Bighorn 1876
Following this - the Scoux and Cheyenne = brutally suppressed
North: Comanche and Cheyenne defeated in Red River War 1874-75.
In the Nez Pierce War 1877, Chief Joseph this Nez Perce warriors fought their way over 5 states towards Canada until they were forced to surrender by General Miles
When was US military control effectively established
Native American land
1877
What happened despite US military control 1877 on Native American land
Outbreaks of rebellion like Geronimos War from 1881-86 and Ghost Dance Rebellion of the Lahota Scoux which was crushed at wounded knee 1890
By this point, influx of white settlers pushed natives to margins of society
The Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889 saw 2km acres of Indian Territory as free land to white settlers
Sitting Bull
Found in red clouds war 66-68
War leader in Black Hills War 1876
After defeat 1877 Sitting Bull went into exile in Canada till 1881- returned to surrender
Killed 1890- resisting police sent to arrest him
Joseph of Nez Perce
Chief of Wallowa Nez Perce 1871
Negotiated peace with US army 1873 but army broke agreement in 1877 leading to Nez Perce war
Became prominent campaigner for return of Indian land
Invited to meet Hayes 1873
Invited to meet T Roosevelt 1903
Geronimo
Fought series of wars against Mexico and US after family killed in Mexican attack
Apache wars ended 1874 when Cochise made peace and Apache people confined to a reservation but Geronimo escaped to Mexico 1881
Geronimo War - till 1866 agreed to make peace
Later - celeb - ????????
General Nelson Miles
Made colonies 1866- 26 years old
Fought in many wars (Indian) eg red river
1866- given command of effort to capture Geronimo
Supervised defeat of Ghost dance rebellion
Fought Spanish US war
Carl Schurz
Came to US 1882 after political exile - became pro Republican journalist in Wisconsin
1869-74 —> senator for Missouri, 1st Ger-American in Senate
1877- appointed secretary of interior , response for Indian affairs
Later - influential newspaper editor and member of Anti-imperialist league
Americanisation : Assimilation
Native Americans
By 1880 most native Americans were settled on reservations and by 1877 they held 138m acres though much was unsuitable for agriculture
During guilded age many attempts to interstate natives to American life
What was formed to develop more orderly methods of conducting Indian relations
Bureau of Indian affairs - later amended by act of 1849 -
transferred Office of Indian Affairs to department on interior -
within century - controlled virtually every aspect of Indian existence
What did the office of Indian affairs do
Removal tribes to reservations - disease and starving - forced gov to begin providing tribes with food and other supplies
Administrating distribution of this aid became responsibility of BIA
But by 1860s- agency not discharging its duties response
Unscrupulous Indian agents inc misery on reservations generated hostility
1867- Congress appointed a Peace Commision to study problems of the BIA’s administration of reservations
What was the Peace Commision
1876- congress formed it to study the problems of the BIA’s administration of reservations
The commision recommended many changes included the appointment of honest more effective agents and the establishment of a separate, independent agency for Indian affairs
Some improvements were forthcoming but the recommendations to remove the BIA from the Interior Department and establish it as an independent agency was never followed
BIA during 1880s
Assimilation era
BIA’s presence in reservations increase dramatically
Indian agents became responsible for operating schools, despising justice, distributing supplies, administrating allotments and leasing contracts
By 1900, Indian agents had in effort become the tribal government
When was the Dawes act
1877
What is the Dawes act
Provided each head of Indian family with 160 acres of farmland or 320 grazing land
Then all remaining open for white
Force assimilation
1899- Oklahoma land rush - 2 eastern women came to Nez Persh- determined to implement Dawes Act
Fletches - leader - ‘friends of indians’
Natives didn’t agree with the act and said they had no choice
Fletcher marked new boundaries - measuring women - for 4 years tried to divide land fairly while fending off whites who wanted the best land
Before Dawes act - 150 million acres in Indian hands
20 years later - 2/3 gone
When was wounded knew and why did it occur
1890
Response to conditions in reservations
Final defeat
