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CIE Biology A1 > Transport in mammals > Flashcards

Transport in mammals Flashcards

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1
Q

2 parts of mammalian circulatory system

what type of circulatory system is it then?

A

systemic and pulmonary

double circulatory system

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2
Q

mammalian circulatory system

A

a closed network of blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, transport it to the tissues of the body, and then return it to the heart.

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3
Q

pulmonary system

A

carries blood between the heart and lungs

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4
Q

systemic system

A

carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body

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5
Q

2 subdivisions of the systemic system

A

coronary circulation

hepatic portal circulation

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6
Q

coronary circulation

A

supplies the heart muscle

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7
Q

hepatic portal circulation

A

runs from the gut to the liver

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8
Q

overview of circulation through the heart

A

deoxygenated blood arrives from the right side of the heart via the vena cava and is pumped out of the right ventricle via the pulmonary artery to become oxygenated at the lungs before returning back to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary vein and returning to the rest of the body via the aorta

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9
Q

venous system

A

returns blood from the capillaries to the heart

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10
Q

arterial system

A

carries blood from the heart to the capillaries

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11
Q

portal systems

A

carry blood between 2 capillary beds

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12
Q

pulmonary vein

A

carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

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13
Q

superior vena cava

A

receives deoxygenated blood from the head and body

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14
Q

inferior vena cava

A

receives deoxygenated blood from the lower body and organs

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15
Q

hepatic vein

A

carries deoxygenated blood from the liver

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16
Q

hepatic portal vein

A

carries deoxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the gut for processing

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17
Q

renal vein

A

carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys.

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18
Q

aorta

A

carries oxygenated blood to the body, branching to form the carotid arteries supplying the head and neck

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19
Q

pulmonary atrery

A

carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs

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20
Q

abdominal aorta

A

supplies organs of abdominal cavity

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21
Q

hepatic artery

A

carries oxygenated blood to the liver

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22
Q

mesenteric artery

A

carries oxygenated blood to the gut

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23
Q

renal artery

A

carries oxygenated blood to the kidneys

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24
Q

blood

A

complex connective tissue made up of cellular components suspended in matrix of liquid plasma.

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25
Q

role of blood

A

transports nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones and wastes.
distributes heat in thermoregulation
aids immune response and clots to prevent pathogens entering blood or blood loss

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26
Q

white blood cells

A

involved in internal defence

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27
Q

platelets

A

small, membrane-bound cell fragments

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28
Q

red blood cells

A

transport oxygen bound to haemoglobin and a small amount of carbon dioxide. no nucleus and are made up of haemoglobin protein

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29
Q

plasma

A

watery matrix transporting dissolved substances, providing cells with water, distributing heat and maintaining blood volume

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30
Q

what does plasma contain

A

dissolved proteins, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, hormones and antibodies

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31
Q

wrights stain

A

differentiates the cells, contains eosin

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32
Q

what does eosin do?

A

stains cytoplasm orange-pink

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33
Q

methylene blue

A

stains nuclei blue

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34
Q

arteries

A

thick-walled blood vessels carrying blood away from the heart to the capillaries, branch to form arterioles which deliver blood to capillaries

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35
Q

arterioles

A

y consist of only an endothelial layer wrapped by smooth muscle fibres at intervals along the length

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36
Q

vasoconstriction

A

increases blood pressure as the walls contract

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37
Q

vasodilation

A

decrease blood pressure as walls relax

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38
Q

artery structure

A

large lumen and thick muscle walls which allow them to withstand the pressure of blood pumped to the heart while maintaining it with the contractile ability

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39
Q

how does the muscle mass of arteries change as you go further from the heart?

A

closer to the heart, the heart has more elastic tissue and so have greater resistance to the higher blood pressures.
arteries further from the heart have more muscle to maintain blood pressure

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40
Q

three main regions of arteries

A 
tunica intima (endothelium)
tunica media
tunica externa
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41
Q

endothelium

A

thin inner layer of squamous endothelial cells

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42
Q

tunica media

A

thick central layer of elastic tissue and smooth muscle that can stretch and contract

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43
Q

tunica externa

A

outer connective tissue layer with elastic tissue, anchors the artery to other tissues and allows it to resist overexpansion

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44
Q

role of the elasticity of outer layers in the arteries

A

even out surges from the heart as the heart pumps blood

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45
Q

role of smooth muscle in the arteries

A

regulates blood flow and pressure by contracting and relaxing to alter arterial diameter and adjust blood volume

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46
Q

veins

A

blood vessels that return blood from the tissues to the heart, branching off into venules.

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47
Q

venules

A

return blood from the capillaries to the veins

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48
Q

structure of veins in comparison to arteries

A

less elastic and muscle tissue, thicker tunica externa and larger lumen
less elastic than arteries but can adapt to changes in pressure and volume of blood
veins have valves

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49
Q

venules structure

A

endothelium and a tunica externa of connective tissue. as they get closer to veins, have tunica media

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50
Q

characteristics of blood in veins

A

low pressure as have passed through narrow capillary vessels, meaning require valves

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51
Q

vein structure

A

valves prevent backflow
endothelium
tunica media is markedly thinner than arteries, layer of smooth muscle with collagen fibres
tunica externa has layer of collagen thicker than in arteries

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52
Q

capillaries

A

small, thin-walled vessels allowing exchange of substances between the blood and tissues and connecting arterial and venous circulation, form networks/beds and are abundant where metabolic rate is high. fluid leaking from capillaries bathe the tissues

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53
Q

structure of endothelium

A

thin endothelium (one cell thick)
basement membrane
diameter of 4-10 micrometers

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54
Q

how do capillaries aid in bathing the tissues

A

blood pressure at arterial end causes fluid to leak from capillaries through fenestrations to bathe the tissues and supply nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and remove waste. some returns to the blood at the venous end of the capillary bed while some is drained by lymph vessels to form lymph

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55
Q

smooth muscle in comparison to cardiac muscle

A

less active than cardiac muscle and relies on anaerobic metabolism, not requiring as much of a blood supply

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56
Q

lymph

A

drains excess tissue fluid and returns to general circulation and has a role in immune system.

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57
Q

tissue fluid composition

A

leucocytes, hormones and proteins

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58
Q

lymph composition

A

lymphocytes and carbon dioxide

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59
Q

microcirculation

A

the flow of blood through a capillary bed

60
Q

2 types of vessels in a capillary bed

A

capillaries and a vascular shunt

61
Q

vascular shunt

A

connects arterioles and venules at either end of the bed, diverting blood flow past capillaries with low metabolic demand

62
Q

structure of a capillary network

A

capillaries are branching networks of small blood vessels connected between the venous and arterial end, outside of a vascular shunt

63
Q

smooth muscle sphincters

A

regulate blood flow through the capillary network by contracting to restrict blood flow to the network and relaxing to let blood flow in. contract to allow a vascular shunt to work.

64
Q

how does a portal venous system differ from other capillary systems?

A

drains blood away from one capillary network into another

65
Q

tissue fluid function

A

provides oxygen and nutrients to the body’s tissues

66
Q

how does tissue fluid reach the cells?

A

moves in and out of the cells by diffusion, cytosis and fenestrations

67
Q

what effects the direction fluid moves in the capillary membranes?

A

balance between blood pressure and oncotic pressure at each end of a capillary bed

68
Q

oncotic pressure

A

colloid osmotic pressure pulls water into the capillaries

It is the pressure created by blood proteins

69
Q

Pressure at the arteriolar end of a capillary bed

A

Capillary hydrostatic pressure exceeds oncotic pressure, allowing fluid and solutes to leak out through the capillary walls.
Net outward pressure

70
Q

What happens to the tissue fluid once it has left the capillary

A

Some is collected by lymph vessels and returned to circulation near the heart while the rest returns to the capillary at the venous end

71
Q

Pressure at the venous end of a capillary bed

A

Oncotic pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure, pulling water and solutes into the capillary
Net inward pressure

72
Q

Haemoglobin

A

Respiratory pigment in red blood cells which binds oxygen and increases the efficiency of its transport and delivery to tissues throughout the body.

73
Q

Myoglobin

A

Where oxygen from haemoglobin is transferred to and retained in the muscles (oxygen store within the muscles)
Consists of only one haem-globin unit.
Greater affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin.
Releases oxygen during periods of prolonged / extreme muscular activity.

74
Q

What is most of the carbon dioxide in the blood carried as?

A

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Formed in red blood cells in a reversible, enzyme catalysed reaction.HCO3 diffuses out of the red blood cells into the plasma, contributing to the buffer capacity of the blood.

75
Q

What happens when carbon dioxide levels rise too quickly?

A

H+ can accumulate in the blood and reduce pH, providing a strong stimulus to increase breathing rate in the medullary respiratory centre

76
Q

Gas exchange membrane

A

Formed by the epithelial cells of alveolus and capillary together
Half a micrometer across, allowing fast diffusion

77
Q

What happens when oxygen levels are too high?

A

Haemoglobin binds with a lot of oxygen so that it becomes saturated

78
Q

3 ways carbon dioxide is carried around in the blood

A

Dissolved in plasma (5%)
Bicarbonate in cells and plasma (75-85%)
Carb amino haemoglobin (10-20%)

79
Q

Chloride shift

A

Diffusion of chloride into the red blood cell to counter the loss of bicarbonate ions

80
Q

Reaction by which bicarbonate is formed

A

CO2 and water react (catalysed by enzyme carbonic anhydrase) to form carbonic acid which then forms bicarbonate and a hydrogen ion

81
Q

What happens to the hydrogen ion produced by the reaction of water and carbon dioxide

A

Picked up by Hb to form haemoglobinic acid

Acts as blood buffer

82
Q

What happens to bicarbonate in the blood?

A

Combines with sodium once diffused into the plasma

83
Q

How is oxygen carried in the blood?

A

Is carried in a chemical combination with haemoglobin in red blood cells

84
Q

How does oxygen tension affect oxygen’s combination with Hb

A

Higher the oxygen tension, the more oxygen will combine with Hb

85
Q

X axis of oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve

A

Oxygen tension

86
Q

Y axis of oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve

A

Percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen

87
Q

Bohr effect

A

As pH increases (lower CO2), more oxygen is combined with Hb

As pH decreases (more CO2), less oxygen is combined with Hb

88
Q

how do you work out the amount of oxygen released to the tissues from an oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation graph?

A

difference in Hb saturation at high and low pH

89
Q

regions of high oxygen in the body

A

lung capillaries and alveoli

90
Q

regions of high carbon dioxide in the body

A

capillaries leaving the tissues and in the cells of body tissues

91
Q

role of reversible binding reaction of Hb with oxygen

A

to take up oxygen where oxygen tensions are high and carry oxygen to where it is required before releasing it

92
Q

how is foetal Hb different to adult Hb

A

foetal haemoglobin has a much higher affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin, enabling oxygen to be passed from maternal Hb to foetal Hb across the placenta.

93
Q

Myoglobin affinity for oxygen

A

very high as is then able to pick up oxygen from Hb and store it in the muscles

94
Q

contributors to the buffer capacity of the blood

A

haemoglobin picks up H+ formed by dissociation of carbonic acid, bicarbonate and blood proteins

95
Q

what happens at high altitude

A

pressure decreases with altitude and so does pressure of oxygen in the air decreases

96
Q

physiological effect on heart rate at high altitude

A

HR increases while stroke volume remains the same.

overall increase in cardiac output

97
Q

physiological effect on kidneys at high altitude

A

kidneys produce EPO (erythropoietin)

98
Q

what does erythropoietin do

A

increased production of red blood cells in the blood by the bone marrow

99
Q

effect on breathing at high altitude? effects of this?

A

hyperventilation increases volume of oxygen in blood while decreasing volume of carbon dioxide.
makes body fluids more alkaline

100
Q

kidneys response to increased alkalinity of body fluids?

A

removes bicarbonate from the blood

101
Q

why is hyperventilation caused?

A

low oxygen pressures in the blood induces a hypoxic response, stimulating oxygen-sensitive receptors in the aorta to induce hyperventilation

102
Q

effects of increased number of red blood cells in the blood

A

more haemoglobin in the blood, allowing more oxygen to be transported
increased viscosity of the blood

103
Q

initial symptoms of high altitude

A

dizziness, breathlessness, headache, nausea, fatigue, coughing
(altitude sickness)

104
Q

pericardium

function?

A

double layered connective tissue of the heart, prevents over distension of the heart and anchors it within the central compartment of the thoracic cavity

105
Q

chordae tendinae

A

non-elastic strands supporting the valve flaps

106
Q

semi-lunar valve

A

prevents blood flow back into the ventricle

107
Q

septum

A

separates ventricles

108
Q

how are the high oxygen demands of the heart supported?

A

dense capillary network branching from the coronary artery

109
Q

location of the coronary arteries

A

arise from the aorta and spread over the surface of the heart, supplying cardiac muscle with oxygenated blood

110
Q

which carries more blood, the left or right coronary artery?

A

the left artery carries 70% of the coronary blood supply and the right carries the remaining 30%

111
Q

function of the coronary veins

A

carries away the deoxygenated blood from the heart and returns to the right atrium via a large coronary sinus.

112
Q

why is the heart asymmetrical?

A

the left side of the heart is thicker and more muscular than the right due to the pressure differences the pulmonary and systemic circulations
left side must develop enough added pressure for the muscles blood flow to the muscles of the body and maintain kidney filtration rates without decreasing blood flow to the brain.

113
Q

why must the pulmonary circulation be at a much lower pressure than the systemic ?

A

so that fluid isn’t forced through the alveoli at the lungs, causing drowning
the systemic circuit must operate at a higher pressure so as to maintain high glomerular filtration rates (kidneys) while still having enough pressure to supply blood to the brain

114
Q

valves function

A

prevent backflow of blood in the heart and regulate filling of the chambers

115
Q

why does the heart need its own blood supply

A

to meet the high oxygen demands of the heart tissue

requires a system to return waste products and deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium

116
Q

what are you recording when you take a pulse?

A

expansion and recoil of the artery that occurs with each contraction of the left ventricle.

117
Q

apex

A

the narrow, pointed end of the heart

118
Q

base of the heart

A

wider end of the heart where the blood vessels enter

119
Q

cardiac cycle

A

the sequence of events of a heartbeat

120
Q

three main stages of cardiac cycle

A

atrial systole
ventricular systole
complete cardiac diastole

121
Q

atrial systole

A

ventricles relax as blood flows into them from atria passively (70%) before the atria contract to force the last remaining blood into the ventricles.
forces semi-lunar valves closed to create lub sound

122
Q

ventricular systole

A

atria relax as ventricles contract, pumping blood into the aorta/pulmonary artery
forces the atrioventricular valves shut (heart sound)

123
Q

full cardiac diastole

A

semi-lunar valves close to prevent backflow into ventricles

and blood fills atria and causes the cardiac cycle to begin again

124
Q

QRS complex

A

corresponds to the spread of the impulse through the ventricles causing them to contract

125
Q

P wave

A

spread of the impulse from the pacemaker through the atria so that they contract

126
Q

T wave

A

signals recovery of electrical activity of ventricles as they relax

127
Q

when is aortic pressure the highest

A

during ventricular contraction (when ventricular pressure is highest)

128
Q

electrical event preceding increase in ventricular pressure

A

QRS wave

129
Q

when is ventricular pressure the lowest?

A

during diastole

130
Q

why is there an electrical recovery in the T wave?

A

prevents fatigue in the heart so it doesn’t contract

131
Q

myogenic

A

originating within the cardiac muscle itself

132
Q

how is the heartbeat regulated ?

A

by a pacemaker and a specialised conduction system

133
Q

what influences the heartbeat

A

pacemaker sets the basic rhythm

can be affected by hormones/cardiovascular control centre

134
Q

nodal cells
what are they
function

A

sinoatrial node and atrioventricular node

generate rhythmic action potentials (without neural stimulation)

135
Q

normal resting rate of self-excitation of the SAN

A

50 beats per minute

136
Q

cardiac output

A

amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle per minute

137
Q

formula for cardiac output

A

heart rate times stroke volume

138
Q

stroke volume

A

volume of blood ejected from left ventricle with each contraction

139
Q

how does blood volume affect the strength of contraction? why?

A

greater blood volume, greater force of contraction

regulates stroke volume in response to demand

140
Q

epinephrine

A

hormone increasing heart rate in preparation for vigorous activity

141
Q

main mechanism for controlling cardiac output to meet changing demands

A

changing the rate and force of heart contraction

142
Q

intercalated discs

A

specialised electrical junctions allowing impulses to spread rapidly through the heart muscle

143
Q

sinoatrial node

A

pacemaker of the heart
small mass of specialised muscle cells on the wall of the right atrium, near the entry point of the vena cava
sets the basic heart rate

144
Q

how does the sinoatrial node act as a pacemaker?

A

spontaneously generates action potentials that cause the atria to contract

145
Q

atrioventricular node

location

A

base of atrium

146
Q

atrioventricular node function

A

delays the impulse so that time is left for atrial contraction to finish before ventricles contract

147
Q

atrioventricular bundle

A

tract of purkyne fibres that distribute action potentials over the ventricles to cause ventricular contraction

CIE Biology A1 (15 decks)

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