The Human Organism Flashcards
1
Q
define anatomy
A
the scientific study of the structure of the body
2
Q
what is included in structure when referring to anatomy
A
- size
- shape
- volume
- materials
- connections
- orientation
3
Q
list the different levels of learning anatomy
A
- gross (systemic and regional)
- histology
- cytology
4
Q
define gross anatomy
A
- large body structures that can be seen with the naked eye
- can be learnt systemically or regionally
5
Q
define systemic gross anatomy
A
learning anatomy through systems of grouped structures (body systems)
6
Q
how many body systems are there
A
12
7
Q
define regional gross anatomy
A
learning anatomy of all systems existing in a specific region (body cavity)
8
Q
what appraoch to learning anatomy is traditionally used in med schools
A
regional
9
Q
what equipment is needed to study histology
A
light microscope
10
Q
define histology
A
- study of tissues (groups of identical cells)
- identifying tissues by their structure
11
Q
what is the highest magnification from a light microscope
A
1000x
12
Q
what was invented in the 1930s to 1950s that allows researchers to view the internal structure of cells with millions of times of magnification
A
electron microscope
13
Q
define cytology
A
the study of the cell and its intracellular ultrastructure
14
Q
define physiology
A
the scientific study of the function of the body
15
Q
what is included in function when referring to physiology
A
- how does it work
- how does it do its job
- what are the steps
16
Q
what is the significance of the name of the course: integrated human anatomy and physiology
A
- integrated
- anatomy and physiology are related and taught at the same time
- structure matches function, function depends on structure
17
Q
what are the 6 levels that anatomy and physiology can be studied at
A
- chemical
- cell
- tissue
- organ
- organ system
- organism
18
Q
what are the main elements that compose the human body
A
- COHN
- # 1 = oxygen
- # 2 = carbon
- # 3 = hydrogen
- # 4 = nitrogen
19
Q
what percent of humans are water
A
67%
20
Q
what main elements are macromolecules made of
A
- O
- C
- H
- N
21
Q
what are some other elements other than COHN that compose the human body
A
- Ca
- P
- K
- S
- Na
22
Q
what are the four macromolecules
A
- nucleic acids
- carbohydrates
- proteins
- lipids
23
Q
describe a smooth muscle cell
A
- small
- single nucleus
- spindle shaped
24
Q
where is smooth muscle tissue found
A
lining internal organs (ex: urinary bladder)
25
what are the 4 layers of the urinary bladder
- epithelium
- elastic connective tissue
- smooth muscle tissue
- connective tissue (stronger than elastic)
26
define organ
- composed of at least 2 types of tissue types
- structure that can perform its own unique function
27
define organ system
- organ relating to each other anatomically and/or physiologically
- function together to achieve an outcome
28
describe the function of the urinary/excretory system
- kidneys filter excess ions and toxins out of the blood and make urine
- ureters bring urine to the bladder with tubes made of smooth muscle that keeps urine flowing in one direction
- bladder holds urine until its ready to be expelled
- urethra brings urine to the outside of the body
29
are organ systems completely independent of each other
- no
- each system depends on other systems to create an organism
30
which two body systems regulate all 12 body systems
- nervous system
- endocrine system
31
describe the endocrine system
- made of glands that produce hormones
- regulates physiology of tissues and organs
32
describe the nervous system
- receives impulses from stimulus
- sends impulse directly to the target tissue
for a reaction
33
describe the speed of the nervous and endocrine system
- nervous system: very fast
- endocrine system: slower than nervous system
34
what is the fastest response time from the endocrine system
- multiple seconds
- can be up to hours or days
35
describe why regulation is important
things must be controlled in the body for it to work correctly and keep you alive and healthy
36
define homeostasis
many physiological variables must be kept within well-defined narrow limits enforced by physiological control systems
37
what are diseases caused by
failure to maintain homeostasis
38
list examples of variables that need homeostasis
- pH of blood and other fluids
- body temperature
- blood glucose
- blood gases
- blood pressure
39
what is the set point for blood pH
7.4
40
what is the set point for body temperature (F and C)
- 98.6 F
- 37 C
41
what hormone regulates blood glucose
insulin
42
what does insulin do
- keeps blood glucose from going too high after a meal
- maintains glucose levels despite varying food intake throughout the day
43
what are the blood gases
- CO2
- O2
44
describe the significance of Claude Bernard
- 19th century French researcher
- first described that animals need a constant internal environment (milieu)
- aka homeostasis
45
describe the significance of Walter Canon
- MD and Harvard professor
- did rigorous and expansive experiments on animals regarding control systems keeping multiple variables within a range (homeostasis)
- coined the term homeostasis
46
what are famously homeostatically regulated
electrolytes
47
is the regulation of the concentration of electrolytes inside and outside the cell the same or different
different concentration limits for electrolytes that are intracellular vs extracellular
48
what is an example of an electrolyte having different concentration limits intracellularly vs extracellularly
sodium (Na+) is more concentrated outside of the cell than inside of the cell
49
define ion
an atom of an element with more/less electrons than protons
50
list common electrolytes in the body
- calcium (Ca2+)
- sodium (Na+)
- chloride (Cl-)
- potassium (K+)
- phosphate (PO43-)
- bicarbonate (HCO3-)
- magnesium (Mg2+)
- sulfate (SO42-)
- hydronium (H+)
51
what type of ion is a calcium ion
- Ca2+
- divalent cation
52
what type of ion is a sodium ion
- Na+
- monovalent cation
53
what type of ion is a chloride ion
- Cl-
- monovalent anion
54
what type of ion is a potassium ion
- K+
- monovalent cation
55
what type of ion is a phosphate ion
- PO43-
- molecular ion
56
what type of ion is a bicarbonate ion
- HCO3-
- molecular ion
57
what type of ion is a magnesium ion
- Mg2+
- divalent cation
58
what type of ion is a hydronium ion
- H3O+ (H+)
- molecular ion
59
what type of ion is a sulfate ion
- SO42-
- molecular ion
60
what is the full and shortened notation of a hydronium ion
- H3O+
- H+
61
what is the general function of bicarbonate ions
- equilibrium of acids and bases in the blood
- controls CO2 levels
62
describe negative feedback
- impulses from regulatory systems diminish the value of a variable back toward the set point
- if the signal gets too high, it is pushed back down; if the signal gets too low, it is pushed back up
63
define the signal in negative feedback
- the variable right now - the set point for that variable (absolute value)
- aka deviation
- always positive
- is a function of the variable
64
what is the signal if your temperature is 99.6 F and the set point is 98.6 F
- signal = current variable - set point
- signal = 99.6 - 98.6 = 1
- signal = 1 degree
65
define set point
the ideal average value for a given variable
66
describe why negative feedback is called negative feedback
- the signal is always positive and is always working to go back to 0 (moving in negative direction)
- the components of negative feedback work to diminish (negatively affect) the deviation (signal, always positive)
67
list the components of negative feedback
- the variable in question
- the signal (current value, set point)
- receptor
- controller
- effector
68
does negative feedback kick in anytime the signal is not 0
- not always
- there is usually a minimum value the signal must be to invoke negative feedback
- range around the set point
69
what are the physical components of negative feedback
- receptor
- controller
- effector
70
describe the receptor in negative feedback
- receives/measures the value of a variable
- specific to one variable
- has a close relationship with the controller
71
describe the controller in negative feedback
- the brains of the operation
- receives information from the receptor
- has the set point for a specific variable memorized
- calculates the signal ad decides if a reaction should happen
- sends a command to the correct effector
72
describe the effector in negative feedback
- receives direction from the controller and does what it says
- decreases the signal
73
describe the receptor, controller, and effector in terms of the temperature in your house
- receptor: thermometer
- controller: thermostat
- effector: air conditioning, heater
74
how high does your temperature usually get before negative feedback is invoked
99.9 F
75
what are the receptors for body temperature
- nerve endings in the integumentary system that react only to temperature change and detect changes in the temperature of the environment
- receptors in the hypothalamus of the brain that learn the temperature of the blood running through the hypothalamus
76
what is the volume of the hypothalamus
end of pinky
77
what components of negative feedback for body temperature are in the hypothalamus
- receptors
- controller
78
define nuclei in the brain
groups of many neurons that have the same job
79
what are the controllers for body temperature
2 nuclei (groups of neurons) in the hypothalamus
80
what structure in the brain is the hypothalamus connected to
pituitary gland
81
what are the effectors for body temerpature
- tiny nerve endings stimulating eccrine sweat glands
- blood vessels near the surface of the skin
82
describe what the effectors do when you get too hot
- tiny nerve endings stimulate eccrine sweat glands to sweat (evaporative cooling)
- smooth muscle (sphincters) in blood vessels near the surface of the skin will dilate (radiative cooling)
83
describe what the effectors do when you get too cold
- hypothalamus tells sphincter muscles in blood vessels near the surface of the skin to constrict
- vibrating of skeletal muscles generates heat (shivering)
84
how does muscle exert force
by contracting
85
is shivering voluntary or involuntary
involuntary
86
what tells skeletal muscles to contract rapidly causing shivering
hypothalamus
87
what is the first law of thermodynamics
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another
88
what is the second law of thermodynamics
- there is never a perfect transfer or energy from one form to another
- some energy is always lost to another form, usually heat
89
describe how shivering makes you warm in terms of the laws of thermodynamics
- 1st law: ATP has energy in the phosphate bonds -> when the bonds are broken, chemical energy is released -> contraction/movement of muscle is transforming chemical energy into kinetic energy
- 2nd law: during the transfer from chemical energy to kinetic energy, some energy is lost in the form of heat which warms you up
90
when might set points be adjusted
- depending on physiological needs
- ex: exercise can alter the set point of blood pressure, infection can alter the set point of body temperature
91
why does the set point for blood pressure increase during exercise
- the body needs a higher blood pressure because muscles have an increased demand for energy
- a higher blood pressure gets more O2 and nutrients to the muscles
92
define systolic blood pressure
- the pressure during contraction of the heart
- top number
93
define diastolic blood pressure
- the pressure during relaxation of the heart
- bottom number
94
what happens to the set point of blood pressure after exercise ends
it should go back to the resting set point quickly
95
what can increase the set point for body temperature
infection
96
describe how the immune response to an infection raises the set point of body temperature
- white blood cells encounter pathogens and secrete a hormone called pyrogens
- pyrogens send a signal to the hypothalamus that causes the set point of body temperature to increase
97
what might you experience right as you start to spike a fever
chills
98
why do you experience chills when you first get a fever
- the body is trying to warm itself up to the new higher set point
- the room temperature is proportionally lower to the body temperature set point so you feel cold
99
why is a fever physiologically useful
- helps to stop bacteria
- can kill bacteria or stall them as they try to acclimate to the new temperature
- gives the immune system time to eliminate the pathogens
100
describe how the set point returns to normal after an infection
- white blood cells stop secreting pyrogens when the interaction with pathogens stops
- the hypothalamus is not receiving the hormone signal, so it returns the set point to normal
101
what might you experience as your fever ends and why
- cold sweat
- the body is warmer than the new set point so you sweat to cool the body
102
what is the crucial difference between negative and positive feedback
- positive feedback increases the signal exponentially
- negative feedback works to decrease the signal
103
what is an example of positive feedback
- labor
- losing blood
104
what is the variable in the positive feedback cycle of labor
variable: force of uterine contractions
105
how strong is the first contraction and what happens to the subsequent contractions
- 1st contraction is weak
- positive feedback circuit makes contractions get stronger exponentially
106
describe what is means that positive feedback is goal-oriented
the positive feedback circuit stops once the goal has been achieved
107
what are the receptors in the positive feedback circuit of labor
muscle cells that are specialized mechanoreceptors in the uterus that detect stretching
108
do the receptor muscle cells in the uterus during labor contract
no
109
where are the stretch receptor muscle cells concentrated in the uterus
near the cervix
110
what do the stretch receptor muscle cells in the uterus do during labor
- detect stretching of the uterus
- stimulate nerve impulses (action potentials) that move to the hypothalamus
111
describe action potentials
- wave-like change in voltage of nerve cells
- moves down the axon of a nerve cell
- action-oreinted
112
what is another phrase for voltage
electrical potential
113
what is the controller for the positive feedback circuit during labor
- hypothalamus
- pituitary gland
114
describe the roll of the hypothalamus as a controller in the positive feedback circuit of labor
- synthesizer
- nuclei in the hypothalamus receive action potentials from muscles in the uterus
- the neurons in the hypothalamus secrete oxytocin
- the neurons in the hypothalamus send the oxytocin to the pituitary gland
115
describe the roll of the pituitary gland as a controller in the positive feedback circuit of labor
- secretor
- receives oxytocin from the hypothalamus
- releases oxytocin into the blood stream
116
what is the target tissue for the hormone oxytocin that is released during the positive feedback circuit of labor
- mammary tissue
- uterine smooth muscle
117
what is the effector in the positive feedback circuit of labor
uterine smooth muscle
118
describe what the effector in the positive feedback circuit of labor do
- receives oxytocin through the bloodstream
- oxytocin causes uterine contractions
- all the cells are linked by gap junctions so only a few cells need to be stimulated by the hormone for all the cells to contract simultaneously
119
describe why labor is positive feedback
- contractions (the signal) get stronger exponentially until the baby is delivered
- as the baby moves down the uterine, more stretch receptors are stimulated until the baby is delivered
120
describe how the positive feedback circuit of labor ends
- birth of the baby
- receptors do not have the stimulus so the positive feedback cycle stops
121
what happens to leftover oxytocin from the positive feedback circuit of labor when the baby is delivered
slowly dies in the bloodstream
122
what is an example of deleterious/vicious positive feedback
losing blood, shock
123
what arteries supply blood to the heart tissue itself
coronary arteries
124
what happens when there is a large wound causing you to lose blood
blood pressure drops
125
why does blood pressure drop when there is a large wound causing you to lose blood
the heart is unable to give blood to the organs, including itself
126
describe how losing blood from a wound is positive feedback
- the wound causes you to lose blood which lowers blood pressure
- a lower blood pressure means the heart can't get enough blood to itself
- the heart weakens with less nutrients from blood
- blood pressure gets lower because the heart is weaker
- etc, etc
127
what does the dorsal body cavity contain
- cranial cavity: brain
- vertebral cavity: spinal cord
128
what does the ventral body cavity contain
- thoracic cavity
- abdominal cavity
- pelvic cavity
129
what does the thoracic cavity contain
- mediastinum
- pleural cavities
130
what are the two parts of the mediastinum
- superior mediastinum
- inferior mediastinum aka the pericardial cavity
131
what is in the superior mediastinum
- thyroid
- aorta
- esophagus
- trachea
132
where in the body is blood pressure the highest
aorta
133
where in the body are homeostatic receptors for blood pressure located and why
- aorta
- location of the highest blood pressure
134
what is in the inferior mediastinum (pericardial cavity)
heart
135
what is in the pleural cavities
lungs
136
what is in the abdominla cavity
- liver
- stomach
- spleen
- pancreas
- gallbladder
- small intestine
- colon/large intestine
- kidneys
137
what is in the pelvic cavity
- urinary bladder
- reproductive organs
- rectum
138
what cavities does the diaphragm divide
- thoracic cavity
- abdominal cavity
139
what is the shape of the diaphragm when relaxed (after exhale)
dome-shaped
140
what is the shape of the diaphragm when contracted (during inhale)
flattened
141
describe what the diaphragm does
- contracts down when inhaling
- increase the size of the thoracic cavity, lungs can expand with air
- increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity, therefore decreasing the pressure so air moves into the lungs
142
what are the two parts of a serous membrane
- inner serous membrane near the organ: visceral serous membrane
- outer serous membrane away from the organ: parietal serous membrane
143
what organs have serous membranes covering them
- heart
- each lung
- digestive tract
144
how many serous membranes surround the digestive tract (stomach, small intestine, most of large intestine)
one
145
what is between the serous membranes
- serous fluid
- viscous and slippery, like raw egg white
146
what is the function of serous membranes
- reduces friction between the organ and its surroundings
- serous membranes surround organs thar are moving all the time (contracting and relaxing) which could create a lot of friction, but the friction is reduced by the serous membrane
147
what is the downside of serous membranes
they are very delicate structures so they can easily break causing issues
148
what is cardiac tamponade
- a potentially fatal condition
- fluid or blood accumulates in the pericardial cavity which compresses the heart
- causes the heart to be unable to fill with blood during relaxation, therefore it cannot pump blood
149
what causes cardiac tamponade
- rupture of the heart wall following myocardial infarction
- rupture of blood vessels in the pericardium after a tumor has invaded the area
- damage to pericardium due to radiation therapy
- trauma
150
what is the second largest organ
liver
151
what body system is the spleen a part of
lymphatic system
152
what does the gallbladder do
- fills with bile that is made in the liver
- secretes bile when you eat a fatty meal
153
what does bile do
- makes the gallbladder appear dark green
- emulsifies fat making absorption more efficient
154
where does most of the absorption occur in the digestive tract
small intestine
155
what does the large intestine do
- water absorption
- bacteria in the large intestine produce vitamin K
156
what are the parts of the large intestine
- cecum
- ascending colon
- transverse colon
- descending colon
- sigmoid colon
157
where does the small intestine join the large intestine
cecum
158
where does the appendix project from
cecum
159
what is the name of the serous membrane that surrounds the digestive system
peritoneum
160
what is peritonitis and what causes it
- inflammation of the peritoneum (serous membrane surrounding digestive tract)
- often caused by appendicitis
161
what are 3 things that cause swelling
- infection
- trauma
- autoimmune disease
162
why is it important to know positional terms and planes of orientation
to be able to communicate with other healthcare providers efficiently and effectively
163
what are synonyms for superior
- cephalic
- cranial
164
what is a synonym for inferior
caudal
165
what is a synonym for anterior
ventral
166
what is a synonym for posterior
dorsal
167
define the sagittal plane
divides the body into left and right sides
168
define the coronal/frontal plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior sides
169
define the transverse plane
divides the body into superior and inferior sides
170
what is the term for the thumb region
pollex
171
what is the term for the big toe region
hallux
172
define hernia
when soft material that is usually encapsulated by a fibrous wall protrudes out of the wall due to weakening or tearing of the wall
173
define inguinal hernia
- a hernia in the inguinal (groin) area
- contents of hernia are usually small intestines
- more common in men than women
174
how are hernias fixed
surgically
175
why are inguinal hernias more common in men than women
- men's testicles descend from a spot in the inguinal area
- after they descend there is a weaker spot of the wall where the testicles descended from that may tear causing an inguinal hernia
