The 18th Century: The Expansion of Europe and the Enlightenment

Question 1

open-field system

Answer 1

land was broken up into narrow strips, each family got one strip, very inefficient

Question 2

enclosure system

Answer 2

(late 17th and 18th c) enclosed the fields into sections run by large landowners, more efficient, displaced many small farmers but more efficient

Question 3

mercantilism

Answer 3

create a favorable balance of trade; minimize imports and maximize exports, build up reserves of precious metals

Question 4

Adam Smith

Answer 4

little government intervention in economy, free competition, and self-interest

Question 5

Francis Bacon

Answer 5

inductive/experimental method; observation ==> collect data ==> draw conclusions

Question 6

Descartes

Answer 6

“I think, therefore I am,” everything not validated by observation should be doubted.
Cartesian Dualism- existence divided into the spiritual and material

Question 7

Discourse on Method

Answer 7

see Descartes

Question 8

Copernicus

Answer 8

heliocentric model, Concerning the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies

Question 9

Galileo

Answer 9

telescopic observations validated Copernican theory

Question 10

Newton

Answer 10

natural laws of motion; unchangeable and predictable-God’s active participation not needed

Question 11

Kepler

Answer 11

elliptic orbits, proved Copernican theory

Question 12

deism

Answer 12

God created a perfect universe that he does not have to intervene in; grew out of Newton’s natural law theories

Question 13

scientific revolution

Answer 13

redefined astronomy and physics, advances in other fields, establishment of learned societies (French Academy of Sciences, Royal Society of London)

Question 14

The Enlightenment

Answer 14

human reason can uncover the laws of nature; a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith.

Question 15

Madame Geoffrin

Answer 15

ran the most celebrated salon in Paris

Question 16

Voltaire

Answer 16

opponent of censorship and organized religion, Candide- criticized flaws of society, advisor to Frederick the Great

Question 17

Rousseau

Answer 17

civilization corrupts humankind, The Social Contract “Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains,” the general will should control a nation, caring teachers for children are needed, social contract is between the people, not the people and the government

Question 18

Montesquieu

Answer 18

separation of (legislative, executive, judicial) powers, checks and balances

Question 19

Diderot

Answer 19

Encyclopedia- a collection of political and social critiques

Question 20

Francois Quesnay

Answer 20

led the physiocrats- laissez-faire ==> completely free trade to allow natural laws of economics to operate

Question 21

Fall of Constantinople

Answer 21

Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 ==> Russia became the inheritor of Byzantine culture and the center of the Orthodox Church, became an empire with a czar

Question 22

Mary Wollstonecraft

Answer 22

A Vindication of the Rights of Women

Question 23

Women and minorities during the Enlightenment

Answer 23

WOMEN
==> emergence of feminist ideas
-Wollstonecraft
-Madame Geoffrin
==> the first women graduated from universities
==> intellectual discussion about women equality before the law
==> Enlightened ideals (natural rights, just laws) made people re-examine gender roles
SLAVERY
==>made them examine how they treated slaves, slowly started to outlaw slavery
RELIGION
==> less intolerance

Question 24

Hobbes

Answer 24

State of nature: brutish, we have civilization to protect us

favored absolute monarchy

Question 25

Locke

Answer 25

blank slate, people are created equal in rights (natural rights- to life, liberty, and property), right to revolution, representative government (consent of the governed), government to protect rights

Question 26

Enlightened Despot

Answer 26

a ruler who aimed for the advancement of society by fostering education, aiding the economy, and promoting social justice

• Frederick II the Great
• Catherine the Great
• Maria Theresa
• Joseph II

Question 27

Prussia

Answer 27

Rulers that centralized the government and encouraged industry in order to build up army:
-Frederick William (r. 1640-1688)
-Frederick I (r. 1688-1713)
-Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740)
Frederick the Great (Frederick II r. 1740-1786)
-“first servant of the state”
-made Prussia a major power
-patronized Voltaire
-improved education, codified laws, fostered industry, invited immigration, extended religious toleration
Junkers recruited as officers

Question 28

Russia

Answer 28

Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584)- expansion and consolidation, Boyars given control over their peasants
Peter the Great (r. 1689-1725)- expanded to Baltic and Black Seas and Far East, westernized Russia, reformed government bureaucracy and Russian Orthodox Church, reorganized the army, encouraged commerce and industry
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)- questioned serfdom but couldn’t alienate nobility, continued economic advance and expansion by annexing Polish and Ottoman land

Question 29

Austria

Answer 29

Maria Theresa (r. 1740- 1780)- centralized government, promoted commerce, limited power of nobility
Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)- guaranteed freedom of the press and religion, German as official language, abolished serfdom