test 5 (13 & 16) Flashcards
Health Psychology
- APA (1979) Health Psychology is the educational, research, and clinical contributions of Psychology to:
- The promotion and maintenance of health
- The prevention and treatment of illness
- The analysis and improvement of the health care system and health policy formation.
50% of all deaths are preventable - due to lifestyles
stress
- A state that impairs our ability to respond to internal and external demands
- Stress is a psychobiological process
- Stress is a stimulus e.g., catastrophies, life events, circumstances
- Stress is a response (physiological and psychological)
- Stress is a process (relationship between person and environment)
modern views of stress
(richard lazarus)
Richard Lazarus: stress is a transaction between a person and their environment
- Primary appraisal: person evaluates situations as benign or stressful
- Secondary appraisal: person decides how to deal with stress
modern views of stress
(lazurus 3 types)
- Loss: person loses a loved one or a possession
- Threat: anticipated harm
- Challenge: opportunity for growth (new job)
Appraisal of stress
We can influence the impact of a stressor
- Behaviorally e.g., drug use vs. relaxation
- Cognitively e.g., denial vs. cognitive restructuring
- Emotionally e.g., hopelessness vs. optimism
Sympathetic Adrenal Medullary system (SAM)
- Stress is perceived by cerebral cortex
- Affects hypothalamus which activates the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
- Stimulates the Adrenal Medulla glands which secrete catecholimines, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
- Raises blood pressure, irregular heart rate, sweating, constriction of peripheral blood vessels
Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenocorticol system (HPA)
- Hypothalamus releases corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF)
- Influences Pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- This affects adrnal cortex, relasing coritcosteroids like cortisol that reduce inflammation and help body return to normal state after acute stressors
14 physical symptoms of stress
- increases in heart rate and pressure
- increased adrenaline and noradrenaline
- stomach ulcers
- injuries
- fatigue
- death
- heart disease
- lung diseases
- increased sweating
10.skin rashes
11.headaches - cancer
- muscular tension
14. sleep disorders
Prolonged Exposure to Stress
- Suppress cellular immune functioning
- Produces hemodynamic changes (increased heart rate and blood pressure)
- Provoke irregular heart rhythms
- Produce neurochemical imbalances (depression, panic disorder)
- Atherosclerosis
- Destruction of neurons in the hippocampus (memory impairment, senility)
Psychological Responses to Stress
- Emotional instability
- Thinking problems:
- problem solving difficulties
- Ruminative thinking
- Castastrophizing
- Irrational thoughts
12 Psychological Symptoms of Stress
- anxiety, tension, confusion, & irritability
- frustration, anger, and resentment
- hypersensitivity, hyperactivity
- suppression of feelings
- poor communication
- withdrawal and depression
- feeling isolated and alienated
- boredom, job dissatisfaction
- mental fatigue, poor reasoning
- poor concentration
- loss of spontaneity & creativity
- lowered self-esteem
12 behavioural responses to stress
- procrastination & avoidance
- lowered performance
- increased alcohol & drug use and abuse
- intentional acts of sabotage
- increased use of prescription drugs
- undereating due to apathy, depression
- overeating as an escape
- weight loss
- increased recklessness, gambling
- aggression and criminal acts
- poor relations with family and friends
- suicide or attempted suicide
Coping
- People manage the gap between demands and resources in stressful situations
- Individual coping mechanisms and beliefs affect the outcome of stress.
- How an event is appraised determines its impact
- problem and emotion focused coping
Emotion Focused Coping
- aimed at controlling the emotional response to the stressful situation
Behavioural: drugs, distraction, or support
Cognitive: denial, optimism, hardy personality
Problem Focused Coping
- aimed at reducing the demands of the stressful situation or expanding the resources available to deal with the stressor
- E.g., quit job, seek treatment or support, learn new skill to adapt to situation
Person attempts to change the situation
- Try to remove the stressor
- Plan ways of resolving the situation
- Seek advice from others on how to change the situation
Social Support and Stress
- Other persons can provide social support:
- Two-way communication in which a person can confide their concerns and receive support from others
- Low social support decreases life span
- Social support may work by
- Buffering person against the harmful effects of stress
- Social support is a positive force that reduces susceptibility to stress
Positive Coping Strategies
- Focused breathing/meditation
- Progressive Muscle relaxation
- Cognitive restructuring
- Visualization and Imagery
- Self-hypnosis
- Anger management
- Thought Stopping Procedures
- Stress Inoculation Training
- Assertiveness Training/Social Skills - Training
- Time Management
Affirmations (Benson, 1995)
- I can handle this
- I accept myself as I am
- I am peaceful I am becoming healthy and strong
- Let it be
- I am doing the best that I can
- through repetition and imagination you can speak directly to your own unconscious mind (which takes everything you say as truth and creates your belief system about they way the world works)
effective affirmations are:
1. stated in the positive
2. written down on paper
3. posted everywhere for repeated viewing
Health and Well Being
Benson & Friedman (1995)
The Three Legs supporting health & wellbeing:
- pharmaceuticals
- surgery and medical procedures
- self-care (the leg that has been missing) of the inner development of the whole person and nurturing beliefs that faciltate healing -
- Western Thinking needs an overhaul
Many medical experts like Benson are recognizing
we need to borrow from the older Eastern traditions.
(Deepak Chopra, Andrew Weil,Jon Kabat-Zinn)
attributions
- Internal vs. External
- Stability
- Fundamental
- Attribution Error
- Defensive Attribution
- Self-serving Bias
- Individualism vs. Collectivism
The Justification of Effort
- If someone works hard to attain a goal, the will be more attractive than to the individual who achieves the same goal with no effort.
- Hazing
- Basic training
- Charging money for pound puppies
- Aronson and Mills (1959) sex discussion group with an embarrassing initiation
Why Do Behaviors Change Attitudes?
- Self-Presentation (Impression Management)
- Self-Justification (Cognitive Dissonance)
- Self-Perception
Conformity and Obedience
- Asch experiment
- Milgram experiment
- The difference a symbol of authority makes e.g., a lab coat
- The nurse’s obedience experiment – much lower level of compliance when the drug was familiar and when they had an opportunity to consult with someone
- Knowledge and social support increase the likelihood of resistance to authority
Norm Formation
- Norms can be arbitrary, pervasive and unintentional
- Norm violation examples
Groups
- Who am I?
- Categorize self-descriptions into group and non-group identifications
- What is a group?
- Is this class a group
What is a group?
- “Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as us”
- People on a plane?
- Five people waiting at the same corner for a bus.
- People attending a worship service.
- The Brittany Spears Fan Club.
- The students in a seminar class.
Why do we form groups?
- Schutz’s (1958) Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation
- Psychological needs for group formation
- Inclusion
- Control
- Affection
Are groups good or bad?
- Conformity, obedience, diffusion of responsibility, deindividuation, panic, the risky shift, groupthink, anonymity, social loafing
- Social, moral, and language development, sense of membership and identity, charity, emotional comfort, support, social facilitation, cooperation, survival
Collective Behavior
- Deindividuation – loss of self awareness and evaluation apprehension when the situation allows one to feel anonymous
- When combined with high states of arousal and a diffusion of responsibility it can create a mob mentality, disinhibiting violent and unacceptable behavior
Riots
- Convergence – only certain types of people would bait a person to jump or commit an act of violence, however, their actions spread throughout a crowd by means of contagion.
- This can create a norm of callousness or cynicism the seems to fit the situation. It creates the illusion of consensus for violence and extreme acts.
Convergence
- Deindividuation alone cannot explain all these phenomena
- Riots, lynchings, mobs, wartime attrocities, police beatings, road rage, escape panics
- Cheering at sporting events, spring break behavior, Mardi Gras, fads, pop icons
Convergence
- Deindividuation alone cannot explain all these phenomena
- Riots, lynchings, mobs, wartime attrocities, police beatings, road rage, escape panics
- Cheering at sporting events, spring break behavior, Mardi Gras, fads, pop icons
Deindividuation
- If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held in any way responsible, what would you do?
- Common findings: 36% antisocial, 19% non-normative, 36% neutral, and 9% prosocial
- Robbing a bank is the most often reported
All of the following were cited in the textbook as factors which promote relaxation except for
A. developing a passive attitude
B. drinking a small amount of alcohol
C. being in a comfortable position
D. focusing on a constant stimulus
B. drinking a small amount of alcohol
The Flashback football team had been down by 35 points at half-time, but they had made a big comeback in the second half. With less than 15 seconds remaining on the clock they made a touchdown that narrowed the other team’s lead to a single point. Their quarterback has decided to try for a two-point conversion in an attempt to win the game by a single point in the dying seconds. As the team lines up for the final play of the game, both the quarterback and the intended receiver are likely to be experiencing
A. frustration
B. conflict
C. burnout
D. pressure
D. pressure
The name Hans Selye gave to the body’s response to stress is
A. the fight-or-flight response
B. the general adaptation syndrome
C. catharsis
D. defensive coping
B. the general adaptation syndrome
A group that one belongs to and identifies with is known as a(n)
A. stereotype
B. social schema
C. outgroup
D. ingroup
D. ingroup
Which of the following has been shown to increase the risk of such chronic diseases as lung cancer, emphysema, and stroke?
A. smoking
B. poor nutrition
C. lack of exercise
D. obesity
A. smoking
Evidence from numerous studies of the bystander effect suggests that
A. it is a widespread phenomenon
B. it is limited to contrived laboratory situations
C. it occurs only in urban ghetto areas
D. there is much truth to the old saying that “there is safety in numbers”
A. it is a widespread phenomenon
Which of the following is not typically a reason for noncompliance with medical advice?
A. having a negative attitude for physicians
B. failing to understand advice or instructions
C. the degree of difficulty associated with following advice or instructions
D. the cost of the medical treatment program
D. the cost of the medical treatment program
Marriages arranged by families and other go-betweens remain common in cultures high in
A. individualism
B. collectivism
C. self-perception
D. self-monitoring
B. collectivism
Which of the following psychologists is known for conducting classic research on obedience to authority?
A. Solomon Asch
B. Daryl Bem
C. Leon Festinger
D. Stanley Milgram
D. Stanley Milgram
The Featured Study by Cohen and his colleagues showed that high-stress subjects had a higher incidence of colds than low-stress subjects. This finding indicates that illness and levels of stress are
A. uncorrelated
B. negatively correlated
C. positively correlated
D. multifactorial variables
C. positively correlated
When Jerry thought he was the only person who was assigned the job of contacting alumni for a 15-year reunion, he spent several hours on the phone each evening trying to reach members of his graduating class. When he learned that eight other people were also working on contacting the alumni he spent only 30 minutes each night making phone calls. The process that would best explain the decrease in Jerry’s effort when he learned that he was working as part of a larger group, is
A. social interference
B. social loafing
C. the bystander effect
D. social dissonance
B. social loafing
Actors and observers tend to give different explanations for the same instance of behavior because
A. only actors themselves can accurately explain their own behavior
B. only outside observers can accurately explain actors’ behavior
C. observers tend to possess more knowledge than the actors
D. situational pressures may not be readily apparent to an observer
D. situational pressures may not be readily apparent to an observer
The week of final exams subjects most students to what kind of stress?
A. pressure
B. change
C. frustration
D. conflict
A. pressure
A man who believes that “women just don’t make good leaders” may dwell on his female supervisor’s mistakes and quickly forget about her achievements. This scenario illustrates which of the following concepts?
A. defensive attribution
B. the illusory correlation effect
C. the fundamental attribution error
D. the bystander effect
B. the illusory correlation effect
Bruce performed very well on the examination, which he attributed to native ability and hard work. Which bias does this illustrate?
A. the fundamental attribution error
B. the actor-observer bias
C. the self-serving bias
D. illusory correlation
C. the self-serving bias
Organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people are referred to as
A. attributions
B. illusory correlations
C. covariation inferences
D. social schemas
D. social schemas
Individualism is to collectivism as __________ is to __________.
A. external; internal
B. personal; group
C. communism; capitalism
D. All of these complete the analogy correctly.
B. personal; group
The final stage of Hans Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, during which the organism’s resources for fighting stress may be depleted is called
A. alarm
B. fatigue
C. resistance
D. exhaustion
D. exhaustion
The two major pathways via which the brain may signal the endocrine system are through the
A. parasympathetic and sympathetic systems
B. circulatory and muscular systems
C. pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system
D. autonomic and skeletal nervous systems
C. pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system
A person who is hard-driving, ambitious, competitive, and at risk for having a heart attack is said to have __________ personality.
A. a Type B
B. an internal
C. an external
D. a Type A
D. a Type A
According to Baumeister, the pressure to perform can elevate self-consciousness, which then disrupts our attention by
A. diverting attention from the demands of the task
B. causing us to perform too automatically
C. creating an approach-avoidance conflict
D. activating our autonomic nervous system
A. diverting attention from the demands of the task
Frustration refers to
A. being blocked in the pursuit of a desired goal
B. the most frequent emotional response to aggression
C. being caught between two incompatible motives
D. being expected to live up to high standards of performance
A. being blocked in the pursuit of a desired goal
Elliot Aronson views inconsistency as the key to dissonance, but maintains that it is inconsistency between one’s __________ and one’s __________ that motivates dissonance.
A. emotions; behavior
B. self-concept; behavior
C. behavior; attributions
D. self-concept; unconscious urges
B. self-concept; behavior
Which of the following statements regarding the effectiveness of two-sided arguments is accurate?
A. Presenting a two-sided argument often confuses the receiver and decreases a source’s persuasiveness.
B. Two-sided arguments should be avoided, since the receiver shouldn’t be informed that there is an alternative to the source’s view.
C. Overall, two-sided arguments tend to be more effective than one-sided arguments.
D. “Two-sided arguments tend to be effective with women, but not with men.
“
C. Overall, two-sided arguments tend to be more effective than one-sided arguments.
Valerie is doing homework for her statistics class. When she checks the answer she has just calculated for the problem she has been working on, she finds it is incorrect. She is frustrated, and tells her roommate: “I don’t know why I’m even trying, I’ll never catch on in this course. I should just give up now.” According to Albert Ellis, Valerie’s statements reflect
A. defensive coping
B. mental disengagement
C. catastrophic thinking
D. reality-based coping
C. catastrophic thinking
Recent research evidence from studies which have investigated the link between depression and heart disease suggests that
A. the stress of living with heart disease may cause the onset of depression
B. depression and heart disease are not correlated with each other
C. the emotional dysfunction of depression may cause heart disease
D. depression and heart disease are both caused by the negative effects of smoking
C. the emotional dysfunction of depression may cause heart disease
According to Hazan and Shaver’s model of infant attachment and romantic love, adults with which of the following attachment styles are most likely to have satisfying, interdependent, and long-lasting relationships?
A. secure
B. insecure
C. avoidant
D. anxious-ambivalent
A. secure
Behavioural vacillation would be most apt to go with which type of conflict?
A. approach-avoidance
B. approach-approach
C. avoidance-avoidance
D. frustration
A. approach-avoidance
In making a causal attribution, we first tend to decide if an event was due to __________ causes.
A. subjective or objective
B. usual or unusual
C. positive or negative
D. internal or external
D. internal or external
Groupthink is more likely when the group
A. does not have a designated leader
B. must justify their decision to other groups in the same organization
C. is under pressure to make a major decision
D. experiences any of these things
C. is under pressure to make a major decision
Travis was piloting a small private jet. He was making his final approach through heavy fog, and when he finally broke through the fog cover at 150 feet he realized that the runway was 20 yards to his left. For an instant he experienced a sensation of total panic, but he quickly took action. With his heart still pounding he gave the plane full throttle in an attempt to clear the rapidly approaching trees. According to Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, as Travis took action he was experiencing
A. physiological exhaustion
B. a resistance reaction
C. an alarm reaction
D. autonomic rebound
B. a resistance reaction
In his studies on conformity, Asch found that if a group of persons espouses an opinion contradictory to one’s own opinion, one is most likely to
A. voice the group’s opinion
B. echo the opinion of the nearest group member
C. voice one’s own opinion, even though it’s contradictory
D. show mild symptoms of learned helplessness
A. voice the group’s opinion
Which of the following statements regarding social loafing is not accurate?
A. Social loafing is an inevitable outcome of group projects.
B. As group size increases, social loafing becomes more likely.
C. Recent evidence indicates that fatigue tends to increase social loafing.
D. The social-loafing effect has been replicated in a number of studies using a variety of tasks.
A. Social loafing is an inevitable outcome of group projects.
Which of the following is not a variable people use to stereotype other people?
A. ethnicity
B. gender
C. occupation
D. Any of these variables may be used.
D. Any of these variables may be used.
Laboratory experiments with cardiology patients have shown that brief period of mental stress
A. can trigger acute symptoms of heart disease, such as myocardial ischemia
B. have little, or no, impact on overall cardiac function
C. can intensify chromic symptoms of heart disease, such as arteriosclerosis
D. can trigger emotional responses such as depression and feelings of despair
A. can trigger acute symptoms of heart disease, such as myocardial ischemia
Constructive coping includes all of the following except
A. confronting a problem directly
B. inhibiting emotional reactions to stress
C. reliance on the use of defense mechanisms
D. making reasonably realistic appraisals of your coping resources
C. reliance on the use of defense mechanisms
Which of the following statements regarding stereotypes is accurate?
A. Stereotypes are inevitably negative and unflattering.
B. Ethnic and racial groups are the only targets of widespread prejudice.
C. We see members of our own ingroup as more alike than the members of outgroups.
D. Stereotypes are so pervasive that they are often activated automatically.
D. Stereotypes are so pervasive that they are often activated automatically.
The bystander effect is
A. greater the more people there are in the group
B. less the more people there are in the group
C. unaffected by the size of the group
D. greatest when the observer is the only one present
A. greater the more people there are in the group
In Weiten’s studies, __________ turned out to be more strongly related to measures of mental health than scores on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale were.
A. frustration
B. conflict
C. pressure
D. change
C. pressure
Putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes is referred to as
A. hedonism
B. dispositional attributional bias
C. egocentrism
D. individualism
D. individualism
You’ve been invited to dinner at a nice restaurant on the final night of a TV mini-series you’ve been watching and thus find yourself confronted with
A. pressure
B. frustration
C. an approach-avoidance conflict
D. an approach-approach conflict
D. an approach-approach conflict
Barbara’s car has been running poorly lately. Whose advice is Barbara most likely to follow in order to make her car run better?
A. her physician
B. her uncle
C. her mechanic
D. her physics instructor
C. her mechanic
Your unique ideas about how a college class should be run, what a typical straight “A” student is like, and how a typical professor will act are all examples of
A. prejudices
B. attitudes
C. attributions
D. social schemas
D. social schemas
Most of Conrad’s friends consider him to be highly neurotic. It is likely that, compared to his friends, Conrad is
A. less likely to perceive events as stressful
B. more likely to “choke” under pressure
C. less likely to use defensive coping strategies
D. more likely to perceive events as stressful
D. more likely to perceive events as stressful
Noncompliance with medical advice occurs approximately
A. 5 to 10 percent of the time
B. 30 to 60 percent of the time
C. 75 percent of the time
D. 80 to 90 percent of the time
B. 30 to 60 percent of the time
The __________ controls the fight-or-flight response as a physiological reaction to a threat.
A. autonomic nervous system
B. pyramidal system
C. central nervous system
D. thalamus
A. autonomic nervous system
Love as the basis for marriage is
A. unique to the United States
B. a product of Asian collectivism
C. virtually universal across all cultures
D. an 18th-century invention of Western culture
D. an 18th-century invention of Western culture
The Featured Study by Cohen and his colleagues showed that
A. psychological stress can increase people’s susceptibility to infectious disease
B. when all possible confounding variables are controlled for, there is no longer any association between stress and vulnerability to infection
C. the stress-illness association found in other studies is probably the result of an increased frequency of health-impairing habits in stressed subjects
D. psychological stress only increases susceptibility to infectious disease in people with Type A personalities
A. psychological stress can increase people’s susceptibility to infectious disease
If you tend to overemphasize internal characteristics in explaining the behavior of others, you are evidencing the
A. false consensus effect
B. situational attributional tendency
C. self-serving bias
D. fundamental attribution error
D. fundamental attribution error
The principle cause of coronary heart disease is
A. atherosclerosis
B. Alzheimer’s disease
C. diabetes
D. burnout
A. atherosclerosis
Individual differences in cardiovascular reactivity
A. typically do not emerge until adulthood
B. are acquired through classical conditioning
C. have not been linked to the occurrence of stress-related illnesses
D. probably contribute to susceptibility to heart disease
D. probably contribute to susceptibility to heart disease
Catastrophic thinking is characterized as involving
A. personality disordered type of thinking
B. thinking associated with neuroticism
C. exaggeration of the magnitude of one’s problems
D. focusing on major stressors and ignoring the impact of minor frustrations
C. exaggeration of the magnitude of one’s problems
According to Hazan and Shaver, romantic love is an attachment process, and people’s intimate relationships in adulthood follow the same form as their attachments
A. in infancy
B. to their preschool playmates
C. to their adolescent peers
D. to their same-gender parent
A. in infancy
When the adrenal medulla is stimulated
A. large amounts of catecholamines are released into the bloodstream
B. the hormone ACTH is secreted
C. corticosteroids are absorbed by the adrenal glands
D. the parasympathetic nervous system is activated
A. large amounts of catecholamines are released into the bloodstream
Herbert Benson devised a simple procedure, called the relaxation response, that can have beneficial health effects. To experience the full benefits, the procedure should be practiced
A. on a daily basis
B. whenever a person has to deal with a major stressor
C. for a minimum of 50 minutes a day, three days per week
D. only when traditional medical treatments produce no improvement
A. on a daily basis
Scott spent a great deal of time and money on becoming a member of a certain club, yet later discovered that the members of the club were boring. According to dissonance theory, Scott would most likely
A. continue to extol the virtues of the club to his friends
B. now “bad mouth” the club to his friends
C. engage in denial and disengagement as part of his defensive attribution
D. try to modify the behavior of the current club members
A. continue to extol the virtues of the club to his friends
Group cohesiveness refers to the
A. degree to which group members agree about an issue
B. strength of the liking relationships linking group members to each other and to the group itself
C. extent of polarization that occurs after group discussion
D. tendency of groups to make more cautious decisions than individuals
B. strength of the liking relationships linking group members to each other and to the group itself
An actor’s behavior being the same over time and across situations defines the covariation information referred to as
A. consistency
B. convergence
C. consensus
D. criterial
A. consistency
The most likely initial consequence of an approach-avoidance conflict is
A. approach
B. vacillation
C. avoidance
D. withdrawal
B. vacillation
Which of the following could be an example of the fundamental attribution error?
A. Ralph described himself as a failure.
B. Ralph thought that the reason he failed was that he was sick that day.
C. Jayne said Ralph failed because the test was unfair.
D. Sue explained Ralph’s failure in terms of his incompetence and laziness.
D. Sue explained Ralph’s failure in terms of his incompetence and laziness.
Which of the following statements regarding the research on dissonance theory is most accurate?
A. Research has generally supported dissonance theory.
B. Research has generally not supported dissonance theory.
C. Research has supported dissonance theory, but only with regard to social behavior.
D. Research on dissonance theory has been favorable, but only when the subjects have been young children.
A. Research has generally supported dissonance theory.
Holmes and Rahe reasoned that major sources of stress for people come from
A. failures
B. life events involving loss
C. changes in one’s life that require readjustment
D. only those life changes the person sees as negative
C. changes in one’s life that require readjustment
According to the notion of defensive attribution, we tend to explain the setbacks that befall other people in terms of __________ causes.
A. internal
B. external
C. stable
D. defensive
A. internal
Selye believed that the body’s reactions to stressful situations
A. are nonspecific - that is, the same to different stressors
B. vary as a function of the individual
C. are specific to the type of stressor involved
D. cannot be generalized across individuals
A. are nonspecific - that is, the same to different stressors
Which of the following is the best piece of advice regarding exercise and its ability to reduce your vulnerability to stress?
A. Select a strenuous activity that will stretch you to the limit of your ability.
B. Become competitive in a team sport.
C. Gradually increase your participation in an enjoyable activity.
D. Play to win in competitive activities.
C. Gradually increase your participation in an enjoyable activity.
Baumeister and Steinhilber found evidence that, in the final, decisive game of a series in a professional sport such as baseball
A. the home team has a definite advantage
B. neither the home team nor the visiting team has an advantage
C. the home team is under greater pressure than the visiting team, and its performance may decline
D. the visiting team is under greater pressure than the home team, and its performance may decline
C. the home team is under greater pressure than the visiting team, and its performance may decline
Obedience is a form of compliance in which people change their behavior in response to
A. direct commands
B. implied pressure
C. requests from others
D. persuasive communications
A. direct commands
According to Hazan and Shaver’s model of infant attachment and romantic love, adults with which of the following attachment styles are most likely to report more intense emotional highs and lows in their romantic relationships?
A. secure
B. insecure
C. avoidant
D. anxious-ambivalent
D. anxious-ambivalent
Active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress are called
A. aggressing
B. resisting
C. coping
D. defending
C. coping
According to this viewpoint, men emphasize physical attractiveness in mate selection while women emphasize the ability to acquire resources. Which theory does this describe?
A. evolutionary theory
B. cognitive dissonance theory
C. sexual propensity theory
D. attribution theory
A. evolutionary theory
Psychology is committed to the reliance on systematic observation through research, to arrive at conclusions. That is, psychology is committed to
A. empiricism
B. objectivity
C. subjectivity
D. functionalism
A. empiricism
Observers tend to favor __________ attributions about the success of males; observers tend to favor __________ attributions about the success of females.
A. internal; external
B. internal; internal
C. external; internal
D. external; external
A. internal; external
Bryce is an army field surgeon who has been operating on wounded soldiers for the past 24 hours, without a break. It seems as if he will never be able to deal with all the wounded soldiers that are already at the field hospital, and more wounded are arriving every hour. Meanwhile, the sound of heavy artillery is getting closer all the time. At this point, Bryce feels completely worn out. His overall energy reserves are totally depleted, and his body just wants to give up. According to Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, Bryce is probably experiencing
A. a resistance reaction
B. an alarm reaction
C. physiological exhaustion
D. autonomic rebound
C. physiological exhaustion
A person responding uniquely to someone or something defines the item of covariation information referred to as
A. distinctiveness
B. divergence
C. disjunctiveness
D. criterial
A. distinctiveness
Which of the following is not characteristic of Type A individuals?
A. They are competitive.
B. They feel there’s never enough time to get everything done.
C. They are easygoing and sociable.
D. They are strongly achievement-motivated.
C. They are easygoing and sociable.
The bystander effect should be strongest in
A. a large group when need for help is ambiguous
B. a large group when need for help is unambiguous
C. a smaller group when need for help is ambiguous
D. a smaller group when need for help is unambiguous
A. a large group when need for help is ambiguous
In the Featured Study on stress and the common cold, Cohen and his colleagues found that, in the subsample of subjects without an infectious roommate
A. there was no difference in the incidence of colds between high-stress and low-stress subjects
B. low-stress subjects were more likely to develop colds than high-stress subjects
C. the colds developed by low-stress subjects were more severe than the colds in high-stress subjects
D. high-stress subjects were more likely to develop colds than low-stress subjects
D. high-stress subjects were more likely to develop colds than low-stress subjects
Making excuses for problems (blaming something else) reflects a
A. fundamental attribution error
B. self-serving bias
C. halo effect
D. self-handicapping strategy
B. self-serving bias
Virginia has wanted to be a physician for as long as she can remember, but she has been unable to gain entry to medical school. Virginia is probably experiencing
A. burnout
B. learned helplessness
C. regression
D. frustration
D. frustration
According to Albert Ellis, the key to making realistic appraisals of stress is to
A. ignore your feelings
B. focus on what you should be doing
C. avoid examining your self-talk too closely
D. dispute irrational assumptions
D. dispute irrational assumption
Long-term success rates for those who quit smoking are about __________ percent.
A. 15
B. 25
C. 50
D. 75
B. 25
According to evolutionary psychologists, which of the following characteristics in a prospective mate would be the least important consideration for a woman seeking a mate?
A. ambition
B. social status
C. financial potential
D. physical attractiveness
D. physical attractiveness
Rory experienced a massive heart attack, after which he enrolled in a stress management training course. Based on the research reported by Blumental, once Rory has completed the course, he should find that his likelihood of
A. developing a depressive disorder will be reduced
B. having a second heart attack will be reduced
C. having a second heart attack will actually increase
D. developing a depressive disorder will actually increase
B. having a second heart attack will be reduced
Social schemas are best defined as
A. patterns of social behavior one is most likely to perform
B. organized clusters of ideas about people or social events
C. tendencies to view those who are different than us in a negative way
D. widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group
B. organized clusters of ideas about people or social events
Which of the following statements regarding the use of weak arguments in persuasive communication is accurate?
A. The more arguments one presents, the more effective the message will be, regardless of the strength of the arguments.
B. Adding weak arguments to a persuasive message will likely do more harm than good to one’s case.
C. The key determinant of the effectiveness of a persuasive message seems to be the ratio of strong arguments to weak arguments.
D. Weak arguments will enhance the effectiveness of a persuasive communication as long as they are presented clearly.
B. Adding weak arguments to a persuasive message will likely do more harm than good to one’s case.
Winona has a 10-page term paper due first thing in the morning, and she still has over half the paper left to write. At the same time her boyfriend is insisting that she come to the concert that evening where he will be performing his first violin solo. She knows that she needs to work on the paper, but she also knows her boyfriend will be disappointed if she doesn’t attend the concert. Winona is most likely feeling
A. pressure
B. frustration
C. vacillation
D. burnout
A. pressure
In which of the following situations are people most likely to follow the instructions they receive from health care professionals?
A. when the instructions are complex and include technical medical terms
B. when they do not fully understand the instructions but still feel the need to do something
C. when they like, respect and understand the health care professional
D. when the medication or treatment program is expensive
C. when they like, respect and understand the health care professional
According to optimal-arousal theories, which of the following situations would be least affected by a high optimal-arousal level?
A. taking a psychology exam
B. typing a term paper
C. buttoning a shirt
D. learning to drive a car
C. buttoning a shirt
Individuals from Western societies are more likely to evidence a(n) __________ in their causal attributions relative to individuals from non-Western societies.
A. self-serving bias
B. self-effacing bias
C. actor-observer bias
D. fundamental attribution error
A. self-serving bias
When Stoner (1961) compared the average decision of a group’s members against their group decision generated through group discussion, he found that
A. group members ignored the discussion and maintained their original decision
B. individuals arrived at riskier decisions than groups
C. groups arrived at riskier decisions than individuals
D. the longer the discussion continued, the riskier the group’s decisions
C. groups arrived at riskier decisions than individuals
Which of the following organs is involved in both of the body’s two major stress pathways?
A. the adrenal gland
B. the sympathetic nervous system
C. the pituitary gland
D. the pineal gland
A. the adrenal gland
One of the things that made the Featured Study by Cohen and his colleagues outstanding was
A. the use of four separate control groups within the main part of the study
B. the enormous effort that the researchers went through to control for possible confounding variables
C. the fact that the subjects were followed for two years to determine the long-term impact of their exposure to the stressor
D. the fact that only 10% of the subjects developed colds after exposure to a respiratory virus
B. the enormous effort that the researchers went through to control for possible confounding variables
Imagine that a researcher publishes the results from a study, and the results indicate that there is a statistically significant association between sleep deprivation and coronary disease. This result would mean that
A. sleep deprivation causes coronary disease
B. coronary disease causes sleep deprivation
C. the effect of sleep deprivation on coronary disease is larger than the effect of any other factor
D. the findings are not likely to be due to chance fluctuations
D. the findings are not likely to be due to chance fluctuations
Your author takes the position that coping behavior to stress
A. is always adaptive
B. is always maladaptive
C. may be adaptive or maladaptive
D. is not “coping” unless it is adaptive
C. may be adaptive or maladaptive
Diffusion of responsibility refers to the
A. tendency of others to assume that someone else will take responsibility in a crisis
B. basis for performing prosocial behavior
C. halo effect in aggression
D. loss of identity one experiences in mob violence/aggression
A. tendency of others to assume that someone else will take responsibility in a crisis
Finding humor in a stressful situation
A. is a counterproductive way of reducing stress
B. ignores the reality of the situation and makes it difficult to combat stress
C. can help to reduce stress by discharging pent-up emotions
D. is an irrational reaction to a serious situation that requires a rational response
C. can help to reduce stress by discharging pent-up emotions
Research suggests that vulnerability to cardiovascular diseases may be influenced by diet. In particular, low-fiber diets may increase the likelihood of __________, and low consumption of fruit and vegetables may be associated with vulnerability to __________.
A. stroke; coronary disease
B. peptic ulcers; stroke
C. coronary disease; stroke
D. coronary disease; peptic ulcers
C. coronary disease; stroke
Which of the following behaviors is likely to be variable across cultures?
A. attitudes about conformity
B. the tendency to obey authority figures
C. the role of love in mating relationships
D. all of these behaviors
D. all of these behaviors
Widely held beliefs about groups of people based on their group membership defines
A. cognitive structuring
B. cultural direction
C. stereotypes
D. schematizing
C. stereotypes
Dr. Gouin believes that getting a promotion at work or getting married is just as stressful as losing a job or getting a divorce. Dr. Gouin’s beliefs are most like those of
A. Scheier and Carver
B. Miller and DiMatteo
C. Friedman and Rosenman
D. Holmes and Rahe
D. Holmes and Rahe
What appears to mediate between a potentially stressful event and the emotional, physiological, and behavioral response to that event?
A. the magnitude of the event
B. the appraisal of the event
C. the frequency of occurrence of the event
D. the number of other people who are present
B. the appraisal of the event
A psychologist with which of the following orientations is most likely to analyze romantic relationships in terms of the adaptive problems they have presented over the course of human history?
A. behavioral
B. humanistic
C. evolutionary
D. psychodynamic
C. evolutionary
Which of the following types of love relationships is most likely to have a sexual component?
A. companionate love
B. passionate love
C. fatuous love
D. attributional love
B. passionate love
The fact that stress lies in the eye of the beholder illustrates the theme of
A. multifactorial causation
B. empiricism
C. psychology in a sociohistorical context
D. the subjectivity of experience
D. the subjectivity of experience
Stress and health research suggests that
A. stress may relate to the incidence of physical illness in general
B. stress effects influence only specific illnesses
C. stress relates to physical illness only in predisposed individuals
D. stress is very specific in its effects on health
A. stress may relate to the incidence of physical illness in general
Which of the following is, in general, likely to reduce the persuasiveness of a message?
A. The receiver’s viewpoint is already fairly close to that of the message.
B. The receiver has been forewarned about the message.
C. A two-sided appeal is used.
D. The source is physically attractive.
B. The receiver has been forewarned about the message.
Which of the following individuals is recognized for developing self-perception theory?
A. Albert Bandura
B. Daryl Bem
C. David Buss
D. Leon Festinger
B. Daryl Bem
Tatiana just finished entering her 10-page term paper into one of the computers in the University’s computer lab. She clicks the “Save” command, and the computer unexpectedly locks up. When she reboots the computer she discovers that all but the first two pages of her term paper have been lost. At this point in time Tatiana is most likely experiencing
A. pressure
B. conflict
C. frustration
D. burnout
C. frustration
Harry is an excellent basketball player who seldom misses a shot during practice. After yesterday’s practice Harry’s coach told him that some scouts from a big college would be at today’s practice. Based on the research by Baumeister, it is likely that this increase in pressure will make Harry
A. more self-conscious and will interfere with his performance
B. less self-conscious and will interfere with his performance
C. more self-conscious, causing him to play even better
D. less self-conscious, causing him to play even better
A. more self-conscious and will interfere with his performance
In Milgram’s (1963) study of obedience, subjects
A. were ordered to deliver painful electric shocks to a stranger
B. became the recipients of painful electric shocks delivered by an experimental accomplice
C. indicated which of three lines matched a “standard line” in length
D. were ordered to give consistently wrong answers to simple questions
A. were ordered to deliver painful electric shocks to a stranger
The fundamental attribution error leads observers to attribute the crime and poverty of urban ethnic neighborhoods to the
A. personal qualities of the residents
B. job discrimination experienced by the residents
C. poor police protection in such areas
D. crowded living conditions in these neighborhoods
A. personal qualities of the residents
Simply repeating a message causes it to be perceived as more true. This finding is known as the __________ effect.
A. validity
B. contrast
C. exposure
D. reiteration
A. validity
Jim always comes to the office early, argues his position aggressively during meetings, and frequently feels frustrated when things don’t go his way. Jim’s behavior is typical of a person with a
A. death wish
B. Type II self-punishment pattern
C. Type B personality
D. Type A personality
D. Type A personality
Which of the following are Japanese subjects more likely to engage in than American subjects?
A. individualism
B. self-serving bias
C. self-effacing bias
D. fundamental attribution error
C. self-effacing bias
A shift toward more extreme decisions in a group as a function of discussion is referred to as
A. group polarization
B. biased decision making
C. the bystander effect
D. diffusion of responsibility
A. group polarization
Brooke had been battling the rising flood waters around her home for more than 72 hours. It seemed that no matter how many sandbags she stacked, it wasn’t enough. At this point she just feels that there is nothing else that she can do. Her overall energy reserves are totally depleted, and her body just wants to give up. According to Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, Brooke is probably experiencing
A. a resistance reaction
B. an alarm reaction
C. physiological exhaustion
D. autonomic rebound
C. physiological exhaustion
The correct order for the three stages of Selye’s general adaptation syndrome is
A. primary, secondary, tertiary
B. recognition, reaction, evaluation
C. alarm, adaptation, recovery
D. alarm, resistance, exhaustion
D. alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Attributing one’s successes to dispositional factors and one’s failures to situational factors is referred to as
A. the fundamental attribution error
B. a self-serving bias
C. the actor-observer bias
D. a self-enhancing strategy
B. a self-serving bias
Which of the following individuals proposed the covariation model of attribution?
A. Fritz Heider
B. Harold Kelley
C. Albert Bandura
D. Sigmund Freud
B. Harold Kelley
According to Hazan and Shaver’s model of infant attachment and romantic love, adults with which of the following attachment styles are most likely to feel negative about their relationships after dealing with conflict?
A. secure
B. insecure
C. avoidant
D. anxious-ambivalent
D. anxious-ambivalent
social psychology
the study of how people think about influence and relate to other people
bystander effect
tendency for an individual to be less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present
- if no one is helping maybe I shouldn’t either
social cognition
area of social psychology that explores how people select, interpret, remember and use social influence
- the way people think in social situations
stereotypes can influence people through:
self-fulfilling prophecy
expectations casue individuals to act in a way that serves to make expectations come true
attributions
explanations of the cause of behaviour
internal attributions
causes inside and specific to the person, like their traits and habits
external attributions
causes outside the person such as social pressure, aspects of the social situation, the weather, and luck
attribution theory
- person who does the behaviour is explained as the actor
- person who offers casual explanations of the actors behaviour os the observer
fundamental attribution error
tendency to observe or overestimate the importance of internal traits and underestimate the importance of external factors when explaining the actors behaviour
false consensus effect
overestimating the degree where everybody else thinks or acts the way they do
most important self-related variable is self-esteem
positive illusions
Favourable views of the self that are not necessarily reality
- those that have this are psychologically healthier and more likely to get positively judged by others
self-serving bias
the tendency to take credit for our successes and to deny responsibility for our failures when we make attributions about our own behaviour
self-objectification
the tendency to see oneself as an object in others eyes
stereotype threat
persons fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on negative stereotype about their group
social comparison
process where we evaluate our thoughts, feelings, behaviours, and abilities in relation to others
attitudes
- our opinions and beliefs about people, objects, and ideas
- how we think and feel about and evaluate the world
cognitive dissonance
- introduced by Festinger
- psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by 2 inconsistent thoughts, values or beliefs
- we many feel uneasy when we notice an inconsistency in what we believe and do
elaboration likelihood model
two pathways of Persuasion
- central route and peripheral
central route
(elaboration likelihood model)
works by engaging the audience thoughtfully with a sound, logical argument
peripheral route
(elaboration likelihood model)
factors such as the attractiveness of the source or the emotional power of appeal
foot in the door technique
making a small request (small pitch) at the beginning, saving the biggest for the ned
door in the face technique
biggest pitch first, which customer will prob reject then making the smaller pitch
Extremes of human social activity:
Altruism and aggression
altruism
(extremes of human social activity)
Giving to another person with the ultimate goal of benefiting that person, even if it occurs at the cost of oneself
- doing something good for someone even if there is a cost to yourself and even if the act can never be repaid
egoism
helping another person for personal gain
- to feel good or avoid guilt
psychological factors in prosocial behaviour
empathy
personality
mood
aggression
social behaviour with the objective of harming someone physically or verbally
conformity
change in a persons behaviour to be more like the group standard
- we may do something we normally wouldn’t because everyone else is doing it
informational social influence
the influence other people have on us because we want to be right
normative social influence
influence others have on us because we want them to like us
obedience
behaviour that complies with the explicit demands of the person in authority
deindividulization
when being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes the sense o personal responsibility
social contagion
imitative behaviour involving spread of actions, emotions and ideas
- in a quiet library, you cough everyone else dose after
social facilitation
when a persons performance improves because of the presence of others
social loafing
person’s tendency to give less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort
risky shift
tendency fir a group decision to be riskier than average decision made by the individual group members
group polarization effect
solidification and strengthening of an individuals position as a consequence of a groups discussion or interaction
groupthink
impaired group decision-making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony
social identity
the way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership
social identity theory
our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves
ethnocentrism
tendency to favour ones ethnic group over another group
mere exposure effect
more we encounter someone or something the more we will start liking it
romantic love (passionate love)
love with a string component of sexuality and infatuation, often predominates In the early part of a love relationship
affectionate love (compantonate love)
occurs when people desire to have the other person near and have a deep caring affection for the other person
social exchnage theory
views social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, minimize cost maximize benifits
health psycholigy
psychology role in establishing and maintaining health and preventing illness
behavoural medicine
interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavioural and biomedical knowledge to promote and reduce illness
stages of change model
precontemplation
- person not yet thinking about change
- may not recognize they have a problem
contemplation
- people acknowledge the problem but may not be ready to commit to change
preparation/determination
- people prepare to take action
- self-belief and the ability to “see it through”
- person feels they are truly ready to change
action/willpower
- people commit to making a real chance and an effective plan
- daily reinforcement or rewards for new behaviour
maintenance
- people successfully avoid temptation and consistently purse healthy behaviours
acute stress
can be adaptive, we can take action and avoid desired consequence
chronic stress
negatively impact you, comprimising immune system
problem-focused coping
cognitive strategy of facing troubles and trying to solve them
- lower levels of psychopathology
emotion-focused coping
responding to the stress by avoiding the stress rather than confronting
- might deny, laugh, distract yourself
hardiness
- control rather than powerlessness
- sees problems as challenges rather than a threat
