Test 4 (chp 40-43) Flashcards
Homeostasis:
The steady state physiological condition of the body
Internal balance
Maintaining a relatively constant internal environment even when the external environment changes significantly
Positive Homeostasis/Feedback:
Triggers mechanisms that amplifies the stimulus
Enhances changes to enable a system to move away from its equilibrium state and cause it to be more unstable
EX: child birth, clotting, lactation
Longer situation; overtime
Negative Homeostasis/Feedback:
A response that reduces, or “damps,” the stimulus
Buffers change to allow a system to stay at an equilibrium and cause it to be more stable
EX: body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, etc…
Immediate situations
Epithelial Tissue
Covers the outside of the body for protection,lines organs and cavities within the body, and absorption/secretion
EX: cuboidal epithelium, simple columnar epithelium, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium, and simple squamous
Connective Tissue
Binds/supports other tissues in the body; secrete extracellular substance
EX: loose connective tissue, tendons/ligaments, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood, bone, and fibrous connective tissue
Muscle Tissue
Responsible for all types of body movement
EX: skeletal (aka striated)-attached to bones, cardia -heart, and smooth-blood vessels/digestive organs/reproductive organs
Nervous Tissue
Sense stimuli and transmit signals in the form of nerve impulses from one part of the animal to another
EX: Neurons (nerve cells), supporting cells
mouth enzymes
Salivary amylase
An enzyme in saliva, hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides into disaccharide in the oral cavity (if starch-it breaks down into maltose)
esophagus enzymes
none
stomach enzymes
Pepsinogen and HCl
Pepsinogen=a protease, or protein-digesting enzyme in the stomach
Both breaks proteins down to large polypeptides to smaller polypeptides
small intestine enzymes from the small intestine
Occurs in the duodenum
From the sm. intestine: Disaccharidases-Breaks down disaccharides into monosaccharides
Dipeptidase/Carboxypeptidases-Breaks smaller polypeptides into amino acids
Nucleosidare-Breaks down into nitrogen base, sugar, and phosphates
Bicarbonate-Neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer in the small intestine
insulin/glucagon homeostasis
The hormones insulin and glucagon maintain glucose homeostasis by tightly regulating glycogen synthesis and breakdown
function of oral cavity
Mechanical digestion begins as teeth break down the food and increases the foods surface area
Chemical Digestion due to salivary Glands
Secretes saliva into the mouth to being chemical digestion of carbohydrates in the oral cavity
function of pharynx
No digestion
Opens to two passageways: the esophagus and the trachea
The epiglottis prevents food from traveling down the trachea
function of esophagus
Connects the oral cavity to the mouth
Peristalsis occurs to transport the food
function of the stomach
Primarily stores food and continues digestion
Chemical digestion due to the secretions of digestive fluid called gastric juice and then mechanical digestion due to the mixing and muscle contraction that mixes the secretion with the food through a churning action
Breaks down proteins with the help of pepsin
function of the small intestine
Enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules
Three Parts:
Duodenum (first 25cm)-Chemical Digestion: Chyme that came from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder, as well as from the gland cells of the intestinal wall itself
Jejunum/Ileum: Absorption of nutrients and water and puts it into the bloodstream
function of large intestine
Absorption of H20
Vitamin production (vitamin K but some E coli)
Includes the colon, cecum, and rectum
Colon: Recover water that has entered the alimentary canal as the solvent of digestive juices
Cecum: Important for fermenting ingested material
Appendix extends from the cecum
Rectum: Where feces are stored before they are eliminated
function of anus
where feces are eliminated
function of pancreas
Aids in chemical digestion by producing an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate as well as trypsin and chymotrypsin into the small intestine
Creates digestion enzymes
function of liver
Produces bile
Breaks down toxins that enters the body
Helps balance nutrient utilization
function of gallbladder
where bile is stored and concentrated
What is peristalsis
Peristalsis are alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in smooth muscle lining
Rhythmic waves of contractions
It is able to work against gravity
Conditions for Fick’s law of diffusion
States that all gases, including O2 and CO2, diffuse in the largest amounts when three conditions are met: (passive transport)
The surface area for gas exchange is large
The respiratory surface is extremely thin
The partial pressure gradient of the gas across the surface is large
Blood Type A
Anti-B antibodies
A antigens
Blood Type B
Anti-A antibodies
B antigens
Blood Type AB
no antibodies
A and B antigens
Blood Type O
Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies
no antigens
what determines blood type
antigens
Know conditions that might affect the amount of oxygen carried in the blood
Iron deficiency (anemia), amount of red blood cells, not enough hemoglobin, sickle cell disorder, conditions in the air: high levels (low altitude) or low levels (high altitude) of oxygen depending on altitude, pH of blood, Diseases: asthma/COPD
Commonalities of all gas exchange systems
You need a moist membrane/surface
Need a partial pressure gradient to move the gases
What is a pulse
The rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat where blood is propelled
Measure of heart rate due to contraction and relaxation of the muscle when it pumps
Basically the heart rate
Be able to explain how blood gets back through veins
Valves Pressure (some but it is low) Milking of skeletal muscles The muscles are contracting to push the blood through AKA skeletal muscle contractions
Be able to tell which organ would be next following a drop of blood in the circ system
1) Contraction of the right ventricle pumps blood towards the lungs via
2) The pulmonary arteries. As the blood flows through it enters
3) Capillary beds in the left and right lungs, it loads O2 and unloads CO2. Oxygen rich blood returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the
4) Left atrium of the heart. Next, the oxygen-rich blood flows into the
5) Left ventricle, which pumps the oxygen-rich blood out to the body tissues through the systemic circuit. Blood leaves the left ventricle via
6) The aorta, which conveys blood to arteries leading throughout the body. The first branches from the aorta are the coronary arteries (not shown), which supply blood to the heart muscle itself. Then branches lead to
7) Capillary beds in the head and arms (forelimbs). The aorta then descends into the abdomen, supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries leading to
8) Capillary beds on the abdominal organs and legs (hindlimbs). Within the capillaries, there is a net diffusion of O2 from the blood to the tissues and of CO2 produced by cellular respiration into the blood. Capillaries rejoin, forming venules, which convey blood to veins. Oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs are channeled into a large vein,
9) The superior vena cava. Another large vein,
10) The inferior vena cava, drains blood from the trunk and hind limbs. The two venae empty their blood into
11) The right atrium, from which the oxygen poor blood flows into
12) The right ventricle and the entire process repeats itself.
nonspecific immune responses
Nonspecific immune response (aka innate immunity)
Active immediately upon infection and are the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered previously
Includes:
First Line of Defense: (The barrier defenses)
EX: skin, secretions (sweat, tears, oil glands) mucous membranes
Second Line of Defense: Defenses that combat pathogens after they enter the body
EX: macrophages, phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, inflammatory response:
Inflammatory response is composed and releases histamines that cause redness, swelling/inflammation, fever/heat, and pain
Occurs for protection (inflammation), raise in temperature to kill bacteria, pain to know something is wrong, and blood flow (redness) for healing
It is generic and happens against all pathogens
specific immune responses
Immune responses are activated after innate immune defenses take effect and develop more slowly
This immune response is enhanced by previous exposure to the infecting pathogen
EX: Synthesis of proteins that inactivate a bacterial toxin and the targeted killing of a virally infected body cell
Each of the many different kinds of receptors recognizes a feature typically found only on a particular part of a particular molecule in a particular microbe
Detects pathogens with a great amount of specificity
Against specific pathogens and will only work against those specific ones
Responsible:
B and the T cells are responsible for this response (lymphocytes)
B cells create the antibodies against the pathogen
T cells will deal with the infected cells
Look at the primary and secondary immune responses graph and understand what happens during first exposure and second exposure
Primary immune response is the first time you are exposed to that pathogen where an antigen produces a small amount of antibodies over a long amount of time due to the plasma cells. Secondary immune response is the second time the body is exposed to that pathogen due to the memory cells where the same antigen produces a large amount of antibodies over a short amount of time.
Know what happens when macrophages ingest bacteria
Phagocytosis/endocytosis: A portion of the membrane will enclose it to form a vessel with it enclosed
The vessel will fuse with the lysosome which destroys the bacteria
The broken pieces are then pushed out of the macrophage but a piece is saved and displayed on the macrophages surface for memory t cells to use CD4 protein to sense and feel the shape of the antigen; therefore, b cells know what type of antibodies to produce
Class 1: attract cytotoxic T cells
Class 2: attracts helper T cells
If someone was given an immunization, what would happen to them if they were exposed to the pathogen they were vaccinated against?
They are more likely to fight it off and fight it faster because it has already been exposed to it before so it will recognize it. Antibodies are forced to be produced (memory cells) which acts as the body’s primary exposure and then when you are exposed it will be the secondary response
humoral immune response
Occurs in the humors (liquids) of the body (EX: blood, lymph)
Involves the activation and clonal selection of effector B cells, which secrete/make antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymph
Cell-Mediated Immune Response
Occurs at the infected cell (which can be in any tissue in the body)
Involves the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells (MHC Class 1), which identify and destroy the target cells by releasing cytotoxic chemicals that causes hole in the membrane of the cell which causes fluids to rush in and kill it, and helper T cells (MHC Class 2), the infected cell will cause the helper T cells to release chemicals called cytokines which will trigger B cells to undergo clonal selection or can tell cytotoxic T cells to get involved
Macrophages present antigens that T cells react to
Which cells are affected by HIV
Helper T cells
what happens to insulin/glucagon homeostasis when you eat
When you eat, glucose increases, the pancreas produces insulin which helps glucose get in the cell from the bloodstream and helps store extra glucose in liver and muscle cells as glycogen
what happens to insulin/glucagon homeostasis when you skip a meal
If you do not eat, glucose decreases, the pancreas releases glucagon to the bloodstream (it is a signal molecule that goes to the receptors on the liver) once it travels to the liver it causes glycogen to be broken down the molecule into glucose by hydrolysis to get released back into the bloodstream
small intestine enzymes from the pancreas
Occurs in duodenum
Pancreatic amylase: Breaking disaccharides into monosaccharides
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases: Breaks small polypeptides down into smaller polypeptides in the small intestine
Nucleases: Nucleotides into nucleosides
Pancreatic lipase: breakdown small fat globules to glycerol, fatty acids
small intestine enzymes from the liver/gallbladder
Occurs in duodenum
From liver/gallbladder: Bile-Breaks down fat into fat droplets
Contains bile salts which act as detergents (emulsifiers) that aid in digestion and absorption of lipids
