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AP Biology > 1107 ECE Final > Flashcards

1107 ECE Final Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

ionic bonds

A

Forms when valence electrons are donated between atoms of a metal and nonmetal
EX: Sodium chloride

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2
Q

covalent bonds

A

Sharing valence electrons between atoms of nonmetals

EX: Water

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3
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

Weakest bond between a slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond attracted to a slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond
EX: Between water molecules

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4
Q

van der waals bonds

A

Weak attractions that allow transient partial charges between molecules
EX: Diatomics

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5
Q

What is allosteric regulation and how does it work?

A

Regulating the availability of the enzymes by either inhibiting or enhancing the active site
If something binds to the allosteric binding site it will either shut the active site to make it impossible to bind or enhance it and make it better suited for the binding

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6
Q

What factors affect how permeable a phospholipid membrane is to a molecule?

A

Temperature-when they are cooler they want to close in together, warmer they want to expand
Ratio of phospholipids to proteins in the membrane (number of fatty acids)
Types of the proteins that are in the membrane
pH

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7
Q

What are the reactants/products of glycolysis? What is the difference between the energy investment phase and the energy pay-off phase? Why is the energy investment phase needed?

A

The reactant are glucose and ADP+phosphate
Products are net two ATP, NADH (electron carrier), 2 pyruvates
Energy investment phase are the first half of the reactions in the glycolysis phase. ATP is needed to initiate the reactions.
Energy pay-off phase is creating (by adding phosphate to ADP) by adding four ATP.

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8
Q

Explain the different structures of a protein and what bonds cause that structure to be made. (think about the ribbon activity we did)

A

Primary
The amino acid chains-peptide bonds holding them together
Secondary
Hydrogen bonding for the alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
Tertiary
Disulfide bridges between cysteine amino acids, positive and negative charges R structure (based on R groups which causes it to fold or bridge)
Quaternary
Two or more polypeptides bonded together

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9
Q

What is the structure of ATP and where does the energy in ATP come from?

A

ATP is an adenine, ribose sugar, and 3 phosphates
The energy comes from the bonds tension-due to them being both negatively charged-and the bonds between the phosphate groups

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10
Q

If given a molecular formula and the masses of each, you should be able to calculate the number of grams used to make a 1M solution, .1M solution.

A

Add the atomic numbers together which gives it for you in 1M solution. Then divide by 10

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11
Q

What are the three parts of a nucleotide?

A

Hydrogenous base, sugar, and a phosphate group

Can be ribose or deoxyribose sugar

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12
Q

Be able to interpret an enzyme activation graph – be able to determine where the products are, the reactants are, the activation energy needed for the reaction, the ΔG, and what happens when an enzyme is added.

A

Amount of energy needed to get the chemical reaction going. In a normal reaction without enzymes a lot more energy is needed to get the reaction started

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13
Q

What is the structure of hemoglobin made out of?

A

Four polypeptide subunits bonded together
Iron is located in the middle of the subunit
The iron is needed to carry oxygen

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14
Q

Passive transport

A

Going from high to low concentration. No energy needed.

EX: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

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15
Q

Active transport

A

Energy is needed. Going from low to high concentration.

EX: sodium potassium pump, co-transport, endocytosis, exocytosis

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16
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Need a protein channel but not energy. Still moves high to low.
EX: Aquaporin

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17
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water through water

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18
Q

pH scale – What is it based on? Which pH’s are acids? Which are bases? Neutral? If given a pH be able to determine the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions

A 
Based on the number of hydrogen ions
-logH+ pH of 6=10-6
H+ions are the actual number. OH- is the actually number subtracted by 14
Acids are on the left-0-7
Bases are on the right-7-14
7=neutral
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19
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain in the ETC of cell respiration? What is happening chemically to it? Is it considered an oxidizer or a reducer?

A

Final acceptor is oxygen
Chemically when it gains electrons reduction occurs-gaining electrons, considered an oxidizer because it forces other molecules to give up their electrons. When it gives up electrons oxidation occurs-gives away electrons

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20
Q

What makes a molecule dissolve in water? (in terms of types of bonds) and the molecule itself)?

A

Polarity
Polar molecules dissolve well
When molecules with OH groups it will dissolve really well in water

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21
Q

Hypotonic solutions:

A

Solution has low solute concentration and is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water, cell will swell/burst (will only burst in animal cells, plants the cell just becomes full because the cell wall holds it in)

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22
Q

Hypertonic solution:

A

Solution has high solute concentration and is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water, cell becomes shriveled/crenated

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23
Q

Hypotonic solutions:

A

Solution has low solute concentration and is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water, cell will swell/burst (will only burst in animal cells, plants the cell just becomes full because the cell wall holds it in)

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24
Q

Isotonic solution:

A

Solution that has a solute concentration that is equal to the inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane

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25
Q

When FADH2 drops off its electrons in the ETC, Is it being oxidized or reduced? What makes it give up its electrons?

A

It is being oxidized because it is giving up electrons

Oxygen makes it gives up its electrons by pulling them away

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26
Q

What is the difference between tumor and a malignant tumor?

A

Benign tumor normally stay in one place-localized
Malignant tumor is metastasized which mean cells from those tumors detach, travel (normally by the lymphatic system), and start growing somewhere else in the body

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27
Q

What are the purine and pyrimidine bases in DNA and RNA?

A

Purines: Guanine and Adenine
Pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine and Uracil (in RNA)

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28
Q

What is the importance of second messengers in G-protein signal pathways?

A 
cAMP
Made from ATP
Provides energy
Has a lot of bond energy
Produce quickly in large amounts
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29
Q

What type of division has sister and nonsister chromatids? When can these be seen from both the mother and father (in you)?

A

Meiosis

Can be seen during prophase 1

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30
Q

What might happen if errors in DNA replication are not fixed

A

A mutation which can lead to things such as cancer, inherited by offspring, cause cells to die, and can cause genes to be either over or under expressed

31
Q

How many different amino acids are used to make proteins?

A

20 amino acids

32
Q

Know the organelles that are found in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes

A

Prokaryotes: only have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, some sort of genetic material, ribosomes, could have a cell wall
Eukaryotes: Has all membrane bound organelles

33
Q

Plasma membrane:

A

regulates what enters and leaves the cell

34
Q

Nucleus:

A

a vessel to hold the genetic material

35
Q

Nucleolus:

A

produces/synthesizes ribosomes

36
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

A

helps in the folding process of proteins that go to the outside of the cell, membrane synthesis, aids in the synthesis of secretory proteins, adds carbs to proteins to make glycoproteins

37
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

A

synthesizes/makes lipids, detoxifies drugs and poisons, metabolizes carbs, stores calcium ions (+2 charge) (find a lot in liver cells)

38
Q

Lysosome:

A

breaks down ingested substances and other cell macromolecules or damaged organelles to recycle them, has lysosomal/hydrolytic enzymes to breakdown things such as food brought in by a perimysium, apoptosis

39
Q

Golgi apparatus:

A

sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles, modifies proteins, it can put carbohydrates and attach them to either proteins or lipids, synthesizes polysaccharides
For other parts of the cell or excretion

40
Q

Peroxisomes:

A

oxidative organelles, vessel that contains enzymes that transfer hydrogen to other molecules, makes hydrogen peroxide, breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas

41
Q

Mitochondria:

A

“powerhouse of the cell”, site of cellular respiration, makes ATP

42
Q

Chloroplast:

A

process is photosynthesis to make sugar/glucose for the cell (glucose=the cells food)

43
Q

Cell wall:

A

only in plant, fungi, and prokaryotes; to protect the cell, give the cell structure

44
Q

Ribosomes:

A

protein synthesis

45
Q

Chloroplast:

A

photosynthesis

46
Q

How does the G-protein reception work?

A

Inactive: no ligand in the receptor
G-protein will have GDP
Active: There will be a signal molecule attached to the receptor
G-protein will have GTP

47
Q

How does the surface to volume ratio affect a cell? Which cells does it affect?

A

Surface to volume ratio: as the volume gets bigger the surface area doesn’t get as big as fast
The bigger the cell gets the metabolic efficiency is affected and isn’t as good
The cells size will be affected
It will affect the organ and tissue sizes
All cells will be affected

48
Q

What is metabolic rate?

A

Rate at which chemical reactions happen within a cell

49
Q

What is the ABO blood type inheritance based on?

A

A codominant inheritance
1 gene based on 3 possible alleles
Not normal two, there is three: i, I^A, I^B

50
Q

Why are single nucleotide polymorphisms used to map genes of human chromosomes?

A

Because they are unique to people and are associated with specific genes

51
Q

How do restriction enzymes cut DNA? Give an example

A

They look for a specific DNA sequence depending on what the enzyme is looking for.
It can cut two ways: cut straight down and end with a blunt end or cut zig-zag and end up with sticky ends which means it is double stranded with short pieces of single stranded on the ends.

52
Q

How does an operon work in terms of regulating genes, operators, repressors? Review lac and tryp operons.

A

The regulation gene is upstream from the whole operon
The regulating gene creates a repressor that regulates if the operon is on or off
The operator area where the RNA polymerase will bind. It is also where the repressor fits into if it want to stop.
If the repressor is in the operator, there is no transcription
If the repressor is out of the operator, there is transcription
Trp operon is always on, repressor is always off
Constantly making more until it doesn’t
Lac operon is always off, repressor is always on
When lactose is present it pulls the repressor off so it can turned on and be transcribed which will code for the enzymes to break down lactose

53
Q

What does methylation of histones do to DNA? What does acetylation do to DNA?

A

Methylation is adding methyl groups to the histone areas.
When methyl is added and this occurs transcription is shut off
Acetylation is adding acetyl groups to the histone areas
When acetyl is added the transcription occurs

54
Q

What did Mendel’s work with peas allow him to do? What did he figure out?

A

The principle of segregation which means that alleles (1 from each parent) will separate from each other in gamete formation

55
Q

What are cDNA libraries? What are they used for?

A

These are cloning DNA libraries
Cloned, complementary DNA fragments that are inserted into host cells and then stored as a library
Used for testing and if the genes has effects on different things

56
Q

What causes us to hear? How does the ear work to allow us to hear?

A

Sound waves that enter the ear and ear canal and travel down to the eardrum that causes it to vibrate. On the other side of the ear the three of the tiniest bones of the bodies that connect to the eardrum causing them to physically move. The end of it is attached to the inner ear that has liquid. This causes waves of liquid to be made which travels into the cochlea where there are little hair cells that are attached to the membrane but movem another membrane that causes the second membrane to move against the hair cells that cause an action potential to the brain

57
Q

How do muscle fibers contract?

A

An action potential comes down, calcium channels open, calcium rushes in, causes the vesicles with the neurotransmitters to fuse into the plasma membrane of the neuron and stay in the synaptic cleft, than the sodium channels in the muscle fiber are open causes the sodium ion channels to open (calcium binds and causes the sodium channels to open) and sodium flows into the muscle fiber
if something blocks the sodium channels, sodium channels won’t open and the muscles will be weak and fatigued and won’t fire

58
Q

In synapses, what do the chemical/ligand gated ion channels react to? (What makes them open?)

A

Binding of neurotransmitters

59
Q

What happens in the heart during systole and diastole?

A

Systole=contracting
Diastole=relaxation
Atriole systole is when the atria contract and force blood into the ventricle. AV valves are open, semilunar valves are closed.
Ventricle systole is when the ventricles ar pumping and they force blood outside the heart. AV valves are closed, semilunar valves are open.

60
Q

How do fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers differ? How can you get the fast twitch fibers to last longer?

A

Slow twitch muscle fibers are for long endurance and takes a long time to fatigue. High in oxygen and are very aerobic.
Marathoner
Fast twitch muscle fibers are for short burst of energy and takes a quick time to fatigue. Lower in oxygen and become anaerobic much faster.
Sprinter

61
Q

What happens when insulin goes into the bloodstream from the pancreas?

A

When insulin enters the bloodstream it lowers glucose in the blood by pulling in glucose to the cell. If there are leftover glucose it is stored as glycogen in fat cells and liver

62
Q

The genetic code is redundant and unambiguous. What does this mean?

A

Basically means that one amino acid can be coded for by more than one codon

63
Q

What happens in autoimmune diseases?

A

The body attacks itself

Can’t distinguish self from nonself

64
Q

What hormones are produced in the gonads?

A

Males produce testosterone

Females produce estrogen/estradiol and progesterone

65
Q

What happens to the corpus luteum once a secondary oocyte is ovulated from the ovary?

A

It degenerates and when it degenerates the uterine wall stops thickening and starts loosening so menstruation can occur
If there is fertilization it stays there and produces progesterone that helps keep the uterine wall thick

66
Q

What are antibodies? What produces them? What system are they associated with?

A

Protein molecules that are produced by B cells and their job is to bind to specific antigens in the immune system

67
Q

What is the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circuits of the cardiovascular system? If given an artery or vein, you should be able to tell which system it is in.

A

Pulmonary=lungs
Pulmonary circuit are the vein/arteries that go to and from the lungs
Pulmonary veins and pulmonary arteries
Systemic=whole body
Any other vein that aren’t the pulmonary and any other artery other than the pulmonary that carries blood to and from the rest of the body

68
Q

What do signal transduction pathways allow a cell to do?

A

Takes a small amount of a message to create large cell responses
Amplifies internal cell processes
Allow a cell to react differently to the same chemical messenger

69
Q

Ammonia

A 
Most common in aquatic species (fish)
Very soluble in water
Basic nitrogenous waste
Least energy intensive: pro
Toxic: con
70
Q

Urea

A

Mammals, adult amphibians, sharks, and some marine bony fishes and turtles mainly excrete urea.
More expensive energy: con
Medium solubility in water
Less toxic than ammonia: pro

71
Q

Uric Acid

A 
Insects, land snails, and many reptiles excrete uric acid
It can be excreted in a paste form
Less toxic than ammonia: pro
More expensive energy: con
Stored in eggs
72
Q

What does Fick’s law state?

A

Says you need a thin surface for gases to get through, a large surface area, and you need a pressure gradient/differentials on either side of the membrane

73
Q

What is the structure of an epithelial tissue? Where is this type of tissue found in the body?

A

Apical surface is the surface that points outside
The outside surface
Basal lateral side is the bottom of the tissue
Found in the trachea, skin, stomach, bladder

AP Biology (41 decks)

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