Test 1 Flashcards
What is anatomy
the study of the structures in living things
What is physiology
the study of functions in things
What is homeostasis
the maintenance of a stable an d relatively constant internal environment
Receives info about the boys internal and external environment
sensor
receives information from the bodys sensors and determines how to respond to those deviations
integrating center
receives instructions/commands from the integrating center and makes appropriate adjustments to counteract the deviations
effectors
what is negative feedback loops
when a change in a condition leads to a response which occurs in the opposite direction of that change in order to get back to the set point
what is a positive feedback loop
when a change in condition leads to a response which amplifies that change
what are antagonistic effectors
effectors that use the opposite actions/outcomes working together with the common goal of maintaining the bodys set point
intrinsic regulation process
cells within the organ or gland sense a change and signal the regulatory mechanisms
extrinsic regulation of the endocrine system
slow and long lasting regulation process with the release of hormones
extrinsic regulation of the nervous system
regulation process that occurs quickly
hierarchy of organization
cells tissues organs organ systems organism
what are the 4 main types of tissues
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
functions in movement and consists of bundles of fibers
muscle tissue
tissue attached to the bones by tendons and is responsible for voluntary movement and the cells are striated
Skeletal tissue
Causes involuntary contractions of the heart and the muscles are striated
cardiac muscle tissue
tissue found lining the walls of the hollow organs and cells are unstriated
smooth muscle tissue
Forms a communication network and functions to relay information regarding internal and external environments from one part of the body to another
nervous tissue
tissues that covers the body and lines its organs and cavities and glands
Epithelial tissue
secretions are released to external body surface via ducts
exocrine glands
irregularly shaped cells
squamous
cube shaped cells
cuboidal
column shaped cells
columnar
loose weave of collagen that holds many tissues and organs in place
loose connective tissue
tissue which contains fat to pad and insulate the body and store energy
adipose tissue
densely packed collagen fibers that form tendons and ligaments
fibrous connective tissue
strong but flexible tissue with collagen fibers
cartilage
rigid tissue made of collagen fibers
bone
fluid matrix
blood
types of connective tissue
loose adipose fibrous cartilage bone blood
two or more types on primary tissues that function together to perform a particular function or functions
organs
What are the 11 different organ systems in the body
muscular skeletal nervous endocrine circulatory integumentary lymphatic/immune respiratory digestive urinary reproductive
What are the most common elements in the body
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon
What is the name for an elemental unit
Atom
Mass of 1
Charge of 0
Neutrons
Mass of 1
Charge of +1
Proton
Mass ~0
Charge -1
Electrons
Protons and neutrons occupy the ______ and the electrons occupy regions ___ this central area
atomic nucleus, surrounding
What tells the number of protons?
Atomic number
Number of protons plus the number of neutrons
atomic mass
determines the chemical properties of an atom
electron arrangement
How many electrons does the inner layer have
2
How many electrons does the outer layer have
8
Where is the valence shell
the outermost shell
What is the octet rule?
Atoms are happiest with 8 electrons in their outer shell
Bonds formed via donation or receipt of an electron
ionic bond
Atoms that have lost or gained electrons from or to their outer shell
ions
positively charged ion
cation
negavtively charged ion
anion
atoms bonded together via electron sharing
covalent bond
when do you have a non polar covalent bond
when atoms are shared equally
When do you have a polar covalent bond
when there is unequal sharing of electrons
What happens when water is ionized (positively or negatively)
H30+ and OH-
Compounds that contain at least 1 carbon atom
organic compounds
What kind of bonds do organic compounds like to form?
covalent bonds (tendency to fill their shell to 8 electrons)
very large organic compounds
marcomolecules
CnH2nO
carbohydrate
simplest carbohydrate
monosaccharide
When 2 monosaccharides are joined together
disaccharides (sugar)
Which fat has double bonds?
Unsaturated fat
what makes up the cell membrane?
phosopholipids
4 interlocking carbon rings with different functional groups attached to the backbone
steroids
type of fatty acid with a cyclic hydrocarbon group that serve as communication molecules
prostaglandins
help stimulate uteran contractions
prostaglandins
constructed from amino acids and linked by peptide bonds
proteins
structural contractile storage defense transport signaling enzymatic
seven major classes of proteins
What is the basic structure of a protein?
amino group, carboxyl group, functional side chain
what is the primary structure of a protein?
polypeptide chain
what is the secondary form of a protein structure?
formation of helix or sheet shape in a protein chain due to hydrogen bonds forming
what is the tertiary form of a protein structure?
twisting and folding
what is the quaternary form of a protein structure?
bonding interactions of multiple polypeptide chains
composed of 5 carbon sugar, a phosphate grou[ and a nitrogenous base
nucleotides
nucleic acid that is single stranded and uses uracil instead oh thymine
RNA
separates the intracellular enviornment from extracellular movement and is composed of lipids, proteins and carbs
cell membrane
arranged in a bilayer of phospholipids with proteins suspended and attached
cell membrane
hydrophobic tails are towards the ____ while polar heads are toward the ____
middle,outside
types of membrane proteins
peripheral and integral
protein partially embedded in the membrane
peripheral
protein that spans the entire membrane
integral
types of carbohydrates in the cell membrane
glycolipids, glycoproteins
large numbers of molecules can be exchanged with extracellular fluid
bulk transfer
types of movement across membranes
endocytosis, exocytosis
cell eats by extending pseudopods, which form a vacuole around the particle
phagocytosis (phagocytosis)
invagination of the plasma membrane to pull materials into the cell
pinocytosis
binding of specific substances to receptor proteins of plasma membrane induces invagination when substances are pulled into the interior of the cell and packed into vesicle
receptor mediated endocytosis
merging of vesicle membrane with plasma membrane, which then releases materials into the extracellular fluid
exocytosis
fingerlike extensions found on the surface of tube like organs
villi/microvilli
hairlike structures projecting into the extracellular fluid, which contain microtubules and general flow
flagella
gel-like material inside cells
cytoplasm
network of protein fibers throughout cytosol that serves as structural support
cytoskeleton
sac-like organelles which contain digestive enzymes
lysosomes
an accumulation of macromolecules
lysosomal storage disease
causes lipids to accumulate in the brain, affecting the function of the CNS
Tay-Sach’s disease
a build up on lipids in the spleen, liver or bone causing skeletal weakness
gaucher’s disease
membraneous sacs
peroxisomes
power generators of the cell
mitochondria
folds in the mitochondria
cristae
DNA in mitochondira
mtDNA
where proteins are made
ribosomes
system of membranous passageways from the nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane
endoplasmic reticulum
assists in protein synthesis and distribution
rough ER
stacks of flattened sacs that help prepare and package secretions and enzymes
golgi complex
control center, which contains DNA
nucleus
the DNA within the cell nucleus combines with protein
chromatin
nucleotide sequence that codes from mRNA production
exons
noncoding sequence that interrupts the eons producing variations of protein products
introns
from DNA to protein
Translation
from DNA to mRNA
Transcription
ribosome binds to mRNA
reads codons
tRNA binds with complementary sequences
tRNA carries specific AA
RNA sequence read by ribosomes
a single strand of RNA bent into cloverleaf shape where one end has the anticodon and the other has the appropriate AA
tRNA
3 nucleotides that will be complementary to the proper codon
anticodon
mRNA moves through ribosome
AA attached to tRNA and forms peptide bonds to each other and disassociate from the tRNA
tRNA disassociated from the mRNA as they lose their AA
continues until stop codon
Translation
encodes the structure for a particular protein
mRNA
carries AA to ribosome for inclusion in a newly synthesized protein
tRNA
strucutural components of ribosomes
rRNA
DNA copied
strands of double helix are separated
each strand used as a new copy of the complementary strand
Replications
Mitosis
Interphase Prophase Meta[hase Anaphase Telophase
centriols form asters and move apart while the nuclear membrane begins to break down
prophase
centrioles attach to spindle fibers at the middle
metaphase
centrioles begin movement to the poles
anaphase
the cell begins to split
telophase
process by which two cell division steps produce gametes
meiosis
pathological cell death when the death of cells damages adjacent cells
necrosis
homeostatic cell death that involves the process where specific cells die off in a controlled fashion
apoptosis
increase in cells of an organ or tissue due to increased cell division
hyperplasia
increase in cell size in an organ or tissue
hypertrophy
biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions, but doesn’t change at the end of reaction or doesn’t change the nature of reaction
enzyme
the amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed
activation energy
speeds up the rate of chemical reactions
catalysts
enzyme (locks) into a specifically shaped key (substrate) can fit
lock and key model
binds specific substrates to and active site, which catalyzes specific chemical reactions
active site specificity
how does pH affect the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction
enzymes exhibit peak activity within a narrow pH range and the pH changes/alters site
how does substrate concentration affect the rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions
as substrate concentration increases, so will the rate of the reaction until the reaction reaches saturation
how does enzyme concentration affect the rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions
increasing enzyme concentration will also increase the rate of reaction up to saturation point
how does temperature affect the rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions
as temp increases, rate of reaction will increase, however the effect of bond breaking will become greater and greater and the rate of reaction will begin to decrease
derived from water soluble vitamins which transport Hydrogen atoms and other small molecules
Coenzymes
help the active site through conformational change of the enzyme of helps in enzyme-substrate binding (typically metal ions)
Cofactors
sequence of enzymatic reactions that begins with an initial substrate and progresses through a number of intermediates and ends with a final product
metabolic pathways
product of one enzyme becomes the substrate of the next
straight chain pathway
two or more enzymes working together
branched pathway
the ate of chemical reaction is proportional to the concentration of the reacting substances
law of mass action
a from of negative feedback in which increased levels of a product decreases the rate of product formation (ex: regulation of ATP formation by phosphofructokinase)
End product inhabitation
the flow of energy in living systems
bioenergetics
first law of thermodynamics
energy cannot be destroyed or created, only transformed
chemical reaction that requires an input of energy
endergonic
chemical reactions that produce energy
exergonic
all the chemical reactions in the body that involve energy transformations
metabolism
releases energy by breaking large molecules down into smaller molecules
catabolic reactions
requires energy input that synthesize large molecules
anabolic reactions
what reactions break down foods to serve as energy sources for the anabolism of ATOP?
catabolic reactions
the process of oxidizing food molecules, like glucose, to carbon dioxide and water
cellular respiration
what are the 2 methods of breaking down food
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
What are the three steps of aerobic respiration of glucose
Glycolysis
Citric acid Cycle
Electron Transport
process that converts/breaks down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruivic acid
glycolysis
where does glycolysis take place
cytoplasm
Product of glycolysis
Glucose+2NAD+2ADP+2Pi = 2 pyretic acid + 2 NADH + 2 ATP
fate of pyruvate if oxygen is present…
oxygen is the last electron
fate of pyruvate if oxygen is not present
anaerobic metabolism/lactic acid fermentation
occurs in muscle, RBCs and other cells when oxygen supply falls below oxygen demand
lactic acid
enormous amount of free energy release that is used to drive ATP synthesis and the MAIN METHOD for producing ATP in most cells
aerobic respiration of glucose
begins with glycolysis
aerobic respiration of glucose
pyruvate leaves the cytoplasm and enters the mitochondrial matrix and then combines with coenzymes
aerobic metabolism
occurs in mitrocondria and begins with acetyl coA
Krebs cycle
Produces 3 NADH
1 FADH
1 ATP
Krebs cycle
turns twice for each glucose moleculeds
krebs cycle
In the krebs cycle, each glucose molecules results in
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
4 CO2
what is the final step of cellular respiration
electron transport
series of membrane-bound carriers transfer electrons between membrane proteins
electron transport
during electron transport, which steps create the most ATP
32-34
formation of glycogen from glucose
glycogenesis
occurs in liver and muscle cells when glucose and ATP are present in high amount in response to hormonal and neural signals
glycogenesis
two way traffic of lactic acid being shipped to the liver and then back to the muscle
Cori Cycle
energy storage location
white adipose tissue
breaking triglycerides down into fatty acids and glycerol using enzyme lipase
lipolysis
mechanisms of transport across plasma membrane
carrier- mediated (facilitated diffusion)
simple difusion
movement of molecules with the concentration gradient
passive transport
simple diffusion, osmosis, facilited diffuison
passive transport
movement of molecule against the concentration gradient
active transport
movement of particles in a solution due to random thermal motion
diffusion
due to ____, molecules that are __ can pass from of side of the cell membrane to the other
phospholipid bilayer, nonpolar/lipid soluble
the difference in the concentration of a substance between two locations
concentration gradient
diffuses easily across the cell membrane
water and non polar molecules
permits the passage of charged inorganic ions
protein channels
factors affecting rate of diffusion
temp surface area concentration gradient size of particles diffusion medium
how does temperature affect diffusion
higher temperatures lead to a faster diffusion
how does surface area affect the rate of diffusion
larger surface area make diffusion faster
what happens if the concentration gradient is high
difusión will happen faster
how does the size of particles affect the rate of diffusion
smaller particles diffuse faster
how do diffusion mediums affect the rate of diffusion
solids–slowest
liquid– faster
gas–fastest
the number of total solute per liter of solution/ measurement of the concentration of a solution
osmolality
the pressure/force needed to stop osmosis
osmotic pressure
the effect of a solute concentration on the osmotic movement of water
tonicity
determines whether cell remains same size, swells, or shrinks when a solution surrounds the cell
tonicity
same osmotic pressure on both sides of the membrane
isotonic solution
hypotonic solution
a solution with lower osmotic pressure than inside the cell
a solution with higher osmotic pressure than inside the cell
hypertonic solution
what increases osmolality in blood
thirst
ADH
decreased excretion of water in urine
bind to transported substance on one side of the membrane
undergo shape change
release substance on opposite side of membrane
carrier mediated transport
characteristics of carrier proteins
specificiity
competition
saturation
substances move from a higher concentration to a lower concentration and require a carrier molecule
facilitated diffusion
transport of glucose
facilitated diffusion
moves a substance against its concentration gradient and requires a carrier molecule
active transport (primary active or secondary active)
occurs when the hydrolysis of ATP is directly responsible for the function of the carriers (proteins in the plasma membrane)
primary active transport
reaction involving the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water
hyrolysis
primary energy source is an ion concentration gradient (coupled transport)
secondary active transport
ions flow from a high to low concentration, providing energy for actively transported substance
secondary active transport
transport necessary in oder for a molecules o ion to move from the external environment into the blood
transport across epithelial membranes
generates concnetration gradients and electrical charge difference between the inside and outside of cell
sodium potassium ATP pump
why is sodium potassium ATP pump importat
generates electrical impulses
drives co-transports of other substances across the plasma membrane
an ionic concentration gradient across a membrane permeable to only one ion
equilibrium potential
types of cell signaling
gap junctions
paracrine signaling
synaptic signaling
endocrine signaling
cell signal that allows adjacent cells to pass ions and regulatory molecules through a channel between cells
gap junctions
cell signaling that happens when adjacent cells secrete molecules that diffuse through the membrane of nearby target cells
paracrine signaling
cell signaling that happens when neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft
synaptic signaling
cell signaling that happens when cells secrete hormones into the extra cellular fluid and they enter the blood and are carried to the cells of the body
endocrine signaling
