teas prep Flashcards
Hypothalamus endocrine function
integration between the endocrine and nervous system. produces releasing hormones that stimulate and inhibit hormones that restrict production of several hormones produced by the anterior pituitary.
Pineal gland endocrine function
produces melatonin
pituitary gland endocrine function
releases hormones that regulate growth and development
thyroid endocrine function
controls rate at which body produces energy from nutrients
parathyroid endocrine function
produces parathyroid hormone for regulation of calcium levels in blood
thymus endocrine function
develops t-cells (defend body from pathogens)
adrenal gland endocrine function
creates adrenaline and cortisol
pancreas endocrine function
secretes hormones in charge of blood sugar homeostasis
testes/ ovaries endocrine function
produce hormones that relate to sexual development and reproduction
hormones are
chemical messengers secreted by ductless glands
negative feedback
counteracting. counter active responses that keep homeostasis.
Ex. the release of insulin triggers uptake of glucose into cells, lowering blood glucose levels.
Positive feedback
(more, more, more)
Ex. contractions cause pressure which causes release of more hormones which causes more contractions which causes more pressure.
homeostasis
the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Maintained largely through negative feedback mechanisms
Beta cells of pancreas
secrete insulin and detect levels of glucose. negative feedback
Alpha cells of pancreas
detect blood glucose levels and secrete glucagon if blood glucose levels are too low. negative feedback
glucagon role
stimulates target cells in liver to convert hepatic glucagon into glucose and release that glucose into the blood.
gigantism
can be due to a benign tumor in the pituitary overriding effects of growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH).
thyroid hormone plays part in
regulating growth, development and metabolic rate.
hyperthyroidism
malfunction of regulatory feedback loops which lead to overproduction of thyroid hormone (TH).
Melatonin produced by
the pineal gland in the center of the brain. cells of target organs are in the eye, the hypothalamus, and the anterior pituitary.
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by
anterior pituitary and stimulates the development of eggs in ovaries and sperm in testes. Also stimulates production of ovaries’ primary hormonal secretion, estrogen.
luteinizing hormone produced by
anterior pituitary and responsible for triggering ovulation in female gonads and production of testosterone in male gonads
testosterone secreted by
the testes (primary hormone) and secreted in small quantities by the adrenal gland in both males and females.
steroid hormones made from
cholesterol and can pass easily through cell membranes because of their lipid composition.
Influence transcription in their target cells
proteins are
molecules composed of amino acids joined by peptide bonds
non steroid hormones are
water soluble and cannot pass between phospholipids of cell membranes. they bind to hormones on the receptors on cell surface and trigger changes in the receptor that signals molecules within the target cell.
thymus gland is larger in
children until about 6 years of age
parathyroid hormone
non-steroid hormone plays role in regulation of plasma calcium levels.
testosterone secreted by
testes and promotes development of male sex characteristics. Small quantities are produced n the adrenal glands in both males and females. Steroid hormone.
estrogen secreted by
ovaries and promotes the development of female sex characteristics. Steroid hormone.
epinephrine secreted by
the adrenal gland and regulates heart rate and blood pressure. Nonsteriod hormone.
follicle stimulating hormone secreted by
anterior pituitary and stimulates the development of eggs in ovaries and sperm in testes. non steroid hormone.
Glucagon secreted by
pancreas and triggers liver to convert hepatic glycogen stores into glucose and release it into the blood to lower blood glucose levels. Nonsteroid hormone.
growth hormone secreted by
the anterior pituitary and stimulates tissue growth. non steroid hormone.
inhibiting hormones secreted by
hypothalamus and restrict the production of certain morons. non steroid hormone.
insulin secreted by
pancreas and is a non steroid hormone that triggers the influx of glucose into cells thus lowering blood glucose levels.
luteinizing hormone secreted by
anterior pituitary and triggers ovulation in ovaries and production of testosterone by testes. non steroid hormone
melatonin secreted by
pineal gland and plays a role in maintaining circadian rhythms. non steroid hormone
oxytocin secreted by
posterior pituitary and stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection. non steroid hormone
parathyroid hormone secreted by
parathyroid and elevates plasma calcium levels. non steroid hormone.
releasing hormones secreted by
hypothalamus and stimulates production of certain hormones. non steroid hormone.
thyroid hormone secreted by
thyroid and regulates development and metabolic rate. non steroid hormone
how many bones in the body
206 and 300 in babies
bones contains
living tissue composed of cells, a collagen matrix, and minerals.
osteocytes are
matured bone cells and maintain bone and their thin cellular projections sense physical stresses on bone
osteoblasts are
immature bone cells and make new bone
osteoclasts
break down bone and perform mineral reabsorption by removing calcium form the bone so it can enter the bloodstream
how do neurons use calcium
to communicate with each other and rely upon its presence in extracellular fluid for normal muscle contraction inhibition
hypocalcemia causes
tetany which is involuntary and continuous contraction of skeletal muscles. this is caused by. sufficient deficits in plasma calcium
osteoporosis
too much calcium depleted from bones by osteoclasts which results in weak and brittle bones.
osteoblasts produce
a highly organized collagen matrix to which extracellular hydroxyapatite a calcium phosphate salt) binds too.
collagen protein’s give
bone flexibility, while minerals that encrust those fibers give them strength
Lamellae
mineral- laden collagen matrix in compact bone. Like rings of a tree
lacunae
microscopic pocket between lamellae where bone cells reside
canaliculi
microscopic tunnels transverse to lamellae and allow for communication between lacunae
osteon
grouping of concentric lamellae and contains a central canal within its inner most ring
central (Haversian) canals
passageways for nerves and blood vessels. allow bones to get oxygen and nutrients without being highly vascular
perforating (Volksman) canals
perpendicular and oblique canals carry small arteries throughout bones
compact bone
bone containing densely packed osteons that make up the peripheral layer of bone. make up plates of the skull and periphery of most other bones
spongy bone
type of bone having fewer osteons and therefore lighter than compact (dense) bone
red bone marrow
site of blood formation and plays a role in the immune system
yellow bone marrow
present within medullary cavity of adult long bones primarily composed of adipose tissue (fat)
femur
largest bone in the adult body containing the largest amount of yellow bone marrow
long bones description
have pronounced longitudinal axis, provide mechanical advantage of levers where they articulate with other bones
hinge joint found in
each elbow and knee and allows for flexion and extension of the more distal bone along only one plane
ball and socket joint found in
shoulders and hips and allow for articulation with other bones
short bones found in
wrists and ankles and have a width similar to their height and articulate with gliding joints
flat bones found in
plates of skull and connect with each other at fused joints called sutures
irregular bones
do not fit in other categories
soft tissue includes
cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and periosteum
Periosteum covers
bones
hyaline cartilage
protects bones where they are involved with articulations
cartilage is
the primary structural protein of connective tissue. and protects bone in articulating joints
osteoarthritis
degenerative bone disease causes inflammation and pain of a joint
rheumatoid arthritis
progressive autoimmune disease that causes joint inflammation and pain. Casued by autoimmune reaction
epiphyseal plate
growth plate. epiphyseal line develops when plate area stops producing cartilage indicating termination of growth in long bone
achondroplastic dwarfism
resulting short stature of individuals when epiphyseal plate stops growing as a premature age.
axial skeleton consists of
skull that shields the brain, thoracic cage of ribs and sternum that shelters the heart and lungs, and spinal column where the spinal cord resides.
also plays major role in metabolism and movement
appendicular skeleton
made up of 4 appendages
bones of arms, legs, hands, and feet
smallest bones in the skull
three auditory ossicles in ear
malleus, incus, and stapes
hyoid bone description
point of tongue and larynx attachment. only bones that does not articulate with the rest of the skeleton
vertebral column description
made of 3 groups of similarly shaped bones. The cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae
atlas description
cervical vertebra 1 on cranial end of vertebral column. has the two flat surfaces on top. allows for nodding yes
axis description
contains vertical projection (dens) that fits into atlas. allows for side to side shaking no motion of head.
fibrocartilage located
between vertebrae called intervertebral discs
pectoral girdle made up of
upper region of appendicular skeleton containing the right and left scapula and clavicles
upper limbs consist of
humerus, radius, and ulna
lower limbs consist of
femur, tibia, and fibula
muscles connect to bones with
tendons
prime mover
contracting muscle
antagonists
relaxed muscle
molecule is
an arrangement of two or more atoms bonded together
DNAs main functions
(1) to pass on information it encodes to the next generation (2) it provides the blueprint or recipes for maintaining cellular functions
gene is
a sequence of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity
DNA is
a macromolecule and a polymer made up of monomers linked together in a long chain
polymer is
a substance composed of similar units bonded together
monomer
molecules that can bind to similar or identical molecules to form a polymer. form covalent bonds with each other via dehydration reaction
nucleotides
monomers used to build DNA and RNA
deoxyribonucleotide is
a kind of sugar- highly modified- that is the monomer found in DNA
nitrogenous bases
usually called bases are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. hydrogen bonded.
DNA double helix is made up of
two polynucleotides wound around each other
DNA backbone made of
altering sugars and phosphates represented rings of a ladder
hydrogen bonds are
a type of non covalent bond
non covalent bond is
a relatively weak bond
adenine pairs with
Thymine
guanine pairs with
cytosine
nucleus
a large organelle within the cell that houses the chromosomes. Primary job is to sequester the DNA into enclosed information
genome
the complete set of genetic information in a cell
humans posses how many pieces of DNA
46 unique pieces of DNA
chromosome
a structure made of protein and one molecule of DNA. Humans posses 23 pairs of chromosomes. one form each parent
DNA stretched out
would be 6 ft long
genes
unit of heredity. sequences of DNA that encode something that the cell can use. encode for proteins or functional RNA molecules like transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Built from only four nucleotides
eukaryotes
have a nucleus in each cell
purpose of non gene DNA
not clear, some scientists refer to it as junk DNA
mRNA
messenger RNA, a type of RNA that is produced by transcription of DNA
codons
triplets of bases that each code for an amino acid.
if genes are sentences, codons are the words within them.
proteins
polymers built of strings of amino acids. 20 common amino acids make up nearly every protein in nearly every organism on earth
genetic code
set of three-letter combinations of nucleotides called codons. 64 codons that specify the 20 amino acids
sequence of transcription and translation
DNA to RNA to protein
transcription and translation in protein synthesis stages
1st stage- RNA “transcribes”, or copies, DNA instructions to make a protein.
RNA copies from DNA gene
2nd stage- proteins use unwound DNA strand as a template and build complementary strand of mRNA
complementary strand
a molecule of RNA (or strand of DNA) synthesized from a complementary template strand
RNA coding
instead of Thymine base, RNA uses Uracil to make RNA from DNA template
A->U
T->A
where does protein synthesis take place
in ribosome also where translation occurs. “Machine” made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
3 codons give
a specific amino acid
ribosome process
ribosome binds to mRNA and reads each codon.
as codon is read by ribosome the codon is bound by a tRNA (using base parking rule) that has an amino acid hooked.
amino acid is transferred from its tRNA to a growing chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds that cling to ribosome.
tRNA releases from codon, ribosome reads the b=next codon in line and process repeats
how many possible codons are there
64, each codon encodes for a specific amino acid
mitosis
cell division in eukaryotes that produce two identical daughter cells, each with the same chromosome number as the parent cell
chromatid
one of the two duplicate=s of a chromosome formed during the cell cycle.
pair of duplicates after replication is called sister chromatids
point mutation
simplest. a change in a single nucleotide that affects one codon.
Can change the structure of the completed protein
missense mutation
type of point mutation where an amino acid is changed
silent mutation
type of point mutation where amino acid is not changed
nonsense mutation
type of point mutation where mutation changes amino acid to a “stop”
most mutations occur
during DNA replication while replicating for cell division
insertion
where an extra base or bases are inserted. can cause frameshift one of the most serious types of mutations
deletion
where a base or bases are lost. can cause frameshift, one of the most serious types of mutations
how many known elements are there
118 . 92 naturally occurring and the rest have been constructed by scientists in labs
what elements make up the majority of living organisms
carbon, nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen
CHON
What is an elements smallest unit
an atom
atoms contain what primary components
Electrons, Neutrons, and Protons
Also called subatomic particles
Subshells include
s, p, d, and f
atomic mass
sum of protons and neutrons in one atom of an element. Displayed as atomic mass unit in periodic table.
neutron amu
1 amu
proton amu
1 amu
Periods
numbered top to bottom indicate the shell number that is the valence electron as well as number of sub shells within each shell
Columns
correspond to configurations of electron in their valence shell. Elements in the same column have similar chemical physical properties.
isotope
atoms of the same element that have a difference number of neutrons but the same number of protons and electrons
ion
a positively or negatively charged atom or molecule
cation
positively charged ions.
neutral atom loses an electron and you can “see through” to the positive
anion
if neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes negatively charged ion
specific heat of capacity
amount of energy needed to change the temperature of one gram of a molecule by 1 degree Celsius
phase of a substance depends on
temperature and pressure
increasing temperature
has tendency to move particles of mater apart
increasing pressure
has tendency to move particles of matter together
temperature at which a phase change occurs
depends on intermolecular forces that are unique for each substance
intensive proporties
physical properties that are independent of the amount of substance present.
Ex, density, color, and conductivity.
extensive proporties
characteristics of a substance that depend on the site of the sample.
Ex. length, volume, and mass
mass
the specific number if molecules present. measurement of inertia
volume
the amount of space taken up by the number of molecules present
density
the ratio of mass to volume
D=m/v
CAN be used to identify a substance because it is an intensive property that is constant for each substance
triple point
temperature at which solid, liquid, and gas phases of a pure substance coexist
deposition
transition of a substance from a gas to a solid without passing through the liquid state
critical point
temperature above which a substance coexists in both liquid and gas states
molecule
an arrangement of two or more atoms bond together
Ex. O2, H2, H2O
compound
A substance made of two more more elements
*molecule can be a compound but compound cannot be a molecule.
metals have
loosely held valence electrons and often lose electrons during a chemical reaction
ionic compound
reaction of a metal and nonmetal. Metal has low ionization energy (loses electrons) which are then gained by the nonmetal because of its high affinity for them
covalent bond
nonmetals reacting. Sharing of electrons, no complete transfer
typically atoms having fewer then ______ valance shell electrons lose electrons to atoms with more than ______ valance shell electrons
4
covalent bonds typically form between __ orbital
p
reactants
substances on the left side of the equation, starting material in a chemical reaction
products
substances on the right side of the equation, substances that are formed in a chemical reaction
single replacement reaction
element reacts with compound and then takes place of another element in that compound
double replacement reaction
where two compounds react causing positive and negative ions of two reactants that switch places. process forms two new compounds
decomposition reaction
when a compound breaks apart
synthesis reaction
when two different substances combine
oxidation-reduction reaction
involves transfer of e- between two chemical species
CH4 + 2O2—-> CO2 + 2H2O
mole
chemical unit that describes large number of atoms in matter, atoms, or molecules
one mole is 6.022 X 10^23 particles
number of moles in from of compound or molecule.
2H2O: two H2Os
length
measurement of distance from end to end
micro
one millionth- one micrometer
milli
one thousandths- millimeter
centi
one hundredth- one centimeter
deca
Ten- dam- decimeter
hecta
one hundred- hm- hectameter
kilo
one thousand- km- kilometer
independent variable
what you change. typically manipulated or changed in an experiment
dependent variable
condition in an experiment that is potentially affected by manipulating an independent variable
control group
receives no treatment, standard treatment whose effect is already known or placebo
control variable
any variable held constant in a research study
experimental design must
minimize bias, maximize precision, and accuracy of the data and be streamlined and robust. Method should be repeatable
a successful experiment is
accurate, replicable and lacks bias. Results are reliable evidence
antigen
substances on the surface of agents that act to identify them, to the body, as being native or foreign
pathogens
dangerous to body
allergies
an immune response to a foreign agent that is not a pathogen
autoimmune disease
a pathology that results from the immune system mistaking part of the body as a pathogen
innate immune system
a collection of nonspecific barriers and cellular responses that serves as an inborn first and second line of defense against pathogens.
inherited at birth
Does not protect against specific pathogens.
physical barriers to entry of pathogens in body
skin, hair, ear wax, salt on skin, eye-cleansing tears
Contain antimicrobial substances: Mucus, tears, saliva
immune systems line of defense
- tonsils and adenoids
- lymph nodes
- thymus
- spleen
- bone marrow
bacteria
unicellular organisms that are capable of causing disease
phagocytes
ingest pathogens, type of white blood cell
macrophage
large white blood cell that ingests foreign material. After consuming a pathogen, macrophage is able to put parts of the ingested antigens on its cell membrane to alert patrolling t-cells
T cells
white blood cells that mature in the thymus and participate in an immune response.
dendritic cells
antigen-presenting cells that process antigen material and present it to T cells
B cells
lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow and make antibodies in response to antigens
cytokines
cell signaling molecules released primarily by helper T cells and macrophages. “Broadcast” location of pathogens to other WBCs.
certain cytokines activate cytotoxic T-cells
Histamine
also a cell of the innate immune system. WBC secretion that triggers capillary permeability and vasodilation.
inflammation
the resulting redness, swelling, heat, and pain in an area of defense by innate immunity
interferons
proteins secreted by leukocytes when they are infected with viruses.
prevent virus replication.
innate immune system external nonspecific barriers
skin, nails, mucus, earwax, secretions (acid, salt, enzymes) and normal flora
innate immune system in eternal nonspecific barriers
antimicrobials, inflammation, interferons, complement, Natural killer lymphocytes, and phagocytes
adaptive immune system response to specific antigens
cytotoxic T cells kill pathogens, Activated by antigen and helper T cells, helper T cells are activated by antigen presenting cells (APC)
Adaptive immune prevention to specific antigens
B cells produce antibodies
Adaptive immune system
a kind of passive or active immunity in which antibodies to a particular antigene present in the body
creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen and leads to an enhanced response to a future encounter.
Adaptive immune system triggered by
the internal presence of specific antigens
types of T cells
Helper T cells
Cytotoxic T cells
Memory T cells
T cells become activated by in to helper T cells, Cytotoxic T cells, and Memory T cells in the presence of an antigen
Helper T cells
secret interleukins, chemical messengers that trigger the action of other cells
Memory cells
respond quickly to an antigen upon re-exposure so that the body is immune to developing symptoms form the associated pathogen the second time
Cytotoxic T cells
a T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected by intracellular pathogens (such as viruses or bacteria), or cells that are damaged in other ways
immunoglobulins
also called antibodies, blood proteins that have a variable region that fits a specific antigen
bind to particular antigens such as bacteria or viruses and aid in their destruction.
antibody mediated immunity
a defense that employs B cells to create antibodies that tag pathogens for later destruction. also known as humoral immunity
passive immunity
temporary immunity gained by ta body that has acquired antibodies from an outside source.
can be gained naturally through placenta or breast milk or artificially by receiving a serum containing antibodies.
Vaccine
a solution of dead or weakened pathogen introduced to the body for the purpose of stimulating antibody production for that pathogen
When do you drop the “E” if adding a suffix?
If the suffix begins with a vowel
Ex. Guide + ance= guidance
when do you keep an “E” if adding a suffix?
If the suffix begins with a consonant.
Ex. Like + ly=Likely
double the final consonant of of a word if
A vowel comes before the final consonant, ends on an accented syllable, or is a one-syllable word.
Ex. permit + ed=permitted
Ex. bat + ing= batting
Ex. stop + ed= stopped
when adding a suffix to a word ending in “y” keep the “y” if
the suffix begins with “I” or if there is a vowel before the “y.”
Ex. try + ing= trying
Ex. annoy + ance= Annoyance
Ex. stay + ed= stayed
when adding a suffix to a word ending in “y”
Drop the “y” and add an “I”
When making words plural add an -s unless
the word ends in “-ch,” “-sh,” “-x.” “-z,” or “-s”. ADD - “-es” instead
when making words that end in “-f” or “-ef” plural
drop the “-f” or “-ef” and add “-ves”
Homophone
words that sound the same but are spelled differently
Homograph
words that are spelled the same but have different meanings
simple sentence
a complete thought made up of a subject and a verb.
Ex. The train arrived at 6 o’clock.
compound sentence
sentence that contains at least two independent clauses that are connected to each other with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or). Comma is used before the coordinating conjunction.
Ex. The train arrived at six o’clock, but Joe was five minutes late.
or semicolon without coordinating conjunction
Ex. The train arrived at six o’clock; Joe was five minutes late.
conjunctive adverb
thus, however, therefore, otherwise, nevertheless.
When adding subordinating adverb (conjunctive adverb) add a semicolon before it.
Ex. The train arrived at six o’clock; however, Joe was five minutes late.
complex sentence
contains an independent clause and a dependent clause
Ex. Whenever it rains, I like to wear my blue coat.
dependent clause
a group of words that include a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a compete sentence because it does not express a complete thought.
independent clause
a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a complete sentence because it expresses a complete thought.
predicate
a part of a sentence that explains what the subject does or is like.
Describes the action.
Contains the verb and states something about the subject.
Oxford comma
comma before the “and” in a simple series of items, also known as a serial comma.
noun
person, place, thing, or idea
Ex. transmission, computer, snow, chemistry
pronoun
take the place of a known.
Ex. She, he, they, we
verb
action words.
Ex. run, clutches, gasped
adjectives
describe or modify nouns.
Ex. broken, ridiculous, devastating
adverbs
describe or modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs.
Ex. easily, quickly, proudly.
prepositions
describe the relationship between other words.
Ex. before, into, onto, according to, since
conjunctions
are connecting words.
Ex. and, so, but, nor, for, yet
interjections
represent short bursts of emotion.
Ex. Hey! Aw! Hooray!
subject
who or what a sentence is about
simple subject
the noun
complete subject
includes the noun and all its components and modifiers
simple predicate
the verb
complete predicate
vern and all its complements and modifiers
direct object
receives the action.
Ex. What they are giving or offering
indirect objects
are people or things to “whom or what” something is done
He bought me an umbrella.
Me is the indirect object.
prepositional phrase
phrase that begins with a preposition (“with”) and ends with an object (“force”).
topic sentence
the sentence that summarizes the main idea of a text or paragraph
pronoun-antecedent agreement
matching like numbers of pronouns and their antecedents: singular with singular, plural with plural.
What is the biological hierarchy
- Organism
- organ system (such as teh nervous system)
- organs (such as the brain)
- Tissues (such as blood)
- Cells (such as neurons)
- Organelles (such as the golgi bodies)
- Biomolecules (such as DNA)
- Molecules (such as oxygen)
what dose the nervous system control and affect?
every part of the body in daily life functions and in the drive to maintain homeostasis
nervous system function
to gather information from the internal and external environment and communicate ant necessary changes to the other systems of the body.
neurons
pass information using an electrical nerve impulse from one neuron to the next
what is the nervous system divided into?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
central nervous system
consists of brain and spinal cord
brain function in nervous system
integrates sensory information received from internal and external environment and assembles a motor response.
spinal cord function in nervous system
connect peripheral nervous system to brain similar to a multilane highway system
peripheral nervous system function
carries sensory (afferent) information towards the Brin and spinal cord, as well as, motor (efferent) information away from the brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system consists of
an extensive network of spinal nerves
peripheral system divisions
somatic and autonomic divisions
Somatic division function
voluntary and controls skeletal muscles of the body
Autonomic division function
also known as visceral division and is involuntary. Controls cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands of organ systems, without conscious planning.
nerves
a bundle of nerve fibers that transmits electrical impulses towards and away from the brain and spinal cord
neuron
specialized cells where electrical impulses pass through
neuron anatomy
includes the cell body (main part of the cell containing nucleus and most organelles) and nerve fibers (dendrites and axons) that extend from the cell body
nerve fibers are dendrites and axons.
Dendrites
receptor extensions that receive nerve impulses
Axon
long singular, tail-like extension that sends impulses from the neuron body to the branching axon
Axon function
nerve fiber that carries nerve impulses away from the neuron cell body
Synapse
the structure that allow neurons to pass signals on to other neurons, muscles, or glands
nerve impuse travels
- one-way from the dendrites to the cell body
- Down the axon to terminal branches
- once the nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal, it stimulates the release of chemical neurotransmitters into gap structure known as the synapse
- neurotransmittes secreted into the synapse are picked up by the next cell causing a continuation or inhibition of the impulse
spinal nerves
bundle of nerve fibers (axons and dendrites) that contain both afferent and efferent impulses
how does an entire muscle move?
nerve send signals to muscle, certain proteins in muscle slide past each other, creating contraction or relaxation of the muscle. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) powers contraction
What are the cells 3 main parts?
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. they also have organelles that carry out metabolic life functions
Cell function
processes that include growth, metabolism, replication, protein synthesis, and movement.
what is the plasma membrane made of
a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. proteins act as gatekeepers that allow only certain molecules in and out making the membrane selectively permeable
cytoplasm
semifluid substance present inside the membrane that contains organelles
nucleus protected by
a double membrane in the form of nucleic acid DNA.
nucleus referred to
as the control center, or brain of the cell
mitosis
cell division in eukaryotes that produces two genetically identical daughter cells, each with the same chromosome number as the parent cell
rough endoplasmic reticulum
a cell organelle consenting ribosomes that synthesizes and processes proteins in the cell. It is continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus
Ribosomes
site of the protein synthesis that is encoded by the DNA in the nucleus
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
a cell organelle that synthesizes and concentrates lipids int he cells doe snot contain ribosomes.
protein synthesis process
- proteins made on ribosomes of rough endoplasmic reticulum
- packaged in parts of membrane into vesicles and transported to Golgi complex
- protein vesicles fuse with Golgi
- proteins are then modified, packaged, and transported to where they are needed
Golgi function
where proteins are modified, packaged, and transported. referred to as manufacturing and shipping department of the cell.
Also responsible for packaging digestive enzymes within vesicles of the cell (lysosomes)
lysozomes
vesicles of powerful digestive enzymes necessary for cellular resperation
mitochondria
an organelle often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, changes food energy into usable cellular energy via process known as cellular energy via process known as cellular respiration. Usable energy is adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
phases of mitosis
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Mitosis interphase
DNA replicates
Mitosis Prophase
chromosomes condense and visible chromosomes appear
Mitosis Metaphase
Chromosomes align, meet in the middle
Mitosis Anaphase
Chromosomes pull apart to the poles. Cell division begins.
Mitosis Telophase
Two nuclei form, Daughter cells separate
Meiosis
specialized cell division used to create haploid gametes in diploid organisms.
Nucleus of germ cells divide and then each part divides again (two fissions) producing 4 gametes or sex cells
sex cells
have half the genetic information of the original germ cell and supplies half the genetic information for sexual reproduction
atoms combine
to form molecules
molecules combine
to form cells
cells combine
to form tissue
cells in the body include
brain cells, liver cells, skin cells, blood cells
cells are
the basic unit of body structure
tissues combine
to form organs
Ex. heart or brain
organs combine
to form organ systems or body systems
Ex. nervous system which includes brain, spinal cord, and nerves
organ systems combine
to form human body
systems in the body work together to
maintain equilibrium
meiosis
specialized cell division used to create haploid gametes in diploid organisms
interphase function
DNA replicates
Prophase I
chromosomes condense and form homologous pairs
Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes align
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes pull to opposite ends of the cell
Telophase I
Nuclear membranes form as the cell separate into two haploid daughter cells with chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids
prophase II
daughter cells contain half the chromosomes of the original cell. Chromosomes in haploid daughter cells condense
Meataphase II
individual chromosomes align (Chromosomes align)
Anaphase II
sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cells
Telophase II
nuclear membranes form as the two daughter cells from meiosis I separate into 4 haploid daughter cells with chromosomes consisting of a single chromatid each.
Tissues
groups of similar cells that work together to perform a shared function
what are the 4 basic types of tissues
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue
epithelial tissue
covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and serves as a protective barrier (e.g. skin)
connective tissue
connects other tissues to each other and serves to bind and support body parts
muscle tissue
moves the body and its contents by contraction
nervous tissue
receives stimuli from the internal and external environment and communicates through electrical impulses with the rest of the body
organs
consist of two or more different tissues and have a specific shape and function
kidney tissue
epithelial, connective, and nervous tissue
kidneys main function
to recycle nutrients and filter waste from the blood
