Study guide Exam 2 Flashcards
What is the PNS system?
- It is nerves and ganglia (everything besides the spinal cord and brain)
- Sensory and motor divisions (then it is divided into visceral and somatic sensory divisions)
What is the CNS system?*
- It is the brain and spinal cord
- It is protected by the cranium and vertebral column
What is the sensory division?
sends the sensory signal to the brain and the spinal cord CNS
What is the visceral sensory division?
Carries signals mainly from the thoracic and abdominal cavity
What is the somatic sensory division?
Carries signals from receptors in skin, muscle, bones and joints to the CNS
What is the motor division?
carries signals from CNS to the effectors
What is the somatic motor division?
- Carries signals to the skeletal muscles
- The voluntary and involuntary contractions are called somatic reflexes
What is the visceral motor division? (also known as the ANS)
- Carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
- No voluntary control they are called visceral reflexes
What is the sympathetic divsion?
Tends to arouse the body for action
What is the parasympathetic division?
Adapts the body for energy intake and conservation
What is the Oligodendrocytes glial cell in the CNS?*
- It makes myelin in CNS
- Forms myelin in brain and spinal cord
What is the Ependymal glial cell in the CNS?*
They line the internal cavities of the brain and spinal cords. Similar to cuboidal epithelium
What is the Microglia glial cell in the CNS?*
They are basically white cells that go through the CNS looking for debris or other problems and get rid of those problems
What is the Astrocytes glial cell in the CNS?*
- Most abundant cell in the CNS
- They provide support and nourishment for neurons
What happens to the glial cells in the CNS when someone has multiple sclerosis?*
This happens because the oligodendrocytes and myelin sheath of the CNS system turn into hardened scar tissue. And the nerve conduction is disrupted.
What is the Satellite cells glial cell in the PNS?
- Provide support and nourishment
- They surround somas of neurons in the ganglia
What is the Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes glial cell in the PNS?
- Forms a sheath around the nerve fibers of the PNS
- They assist in conduction in PNS cells and regeneration of damaged nerve fibers
- and they make myelin in the PNS
What are the two things needed for nerve regeneration?
Endoneurium and neurilemma
What are endoneurium and neurilemma?
- Endoneurium
- This is a thin sleeve of connective tissue around a Schwann cell
2. Neurilemma
- Secretes nerve growth factors that stimulate regrowth of the axon
- This is a thin sleeve of connective tissue around a Schwann cell
Explain how nerve regeneration works in the PNS*
The Schwann cells and endoneurium together form a regeneration tube that guides the growing axon.
What are chemical synapses?*
It is a junction at which the presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter to stimulate the postsynaptic cell and it moves in one direction
What are electrical synapses?*
- This has no neurotransmitter
- It is joined by gap junctions
- It is a quick transmission
- There is no integration of decision making
What is the cerebrum? (describe it)
- Consists of a right and left cerebral hemispheres
- Gyri folds and separate by sulci shallow grooves
- Longitudinal fissure (big sulcus between hemispheres, it separates them)
What is the cerebellum? (describe it)
- Lies inferior to the cerebrum in the posterior cranial and is separated by the transverse cerebral fissure
- This is the second largest region of the brain
- Contains over 50% of its neurons
What is the brainstem? (describe it)
- Crucial for survival
- Does life support functions
- This is the smallest part of the brain
What is dura mater? (describe it)*
- It has two layers that are called the periosteal layer (the outer layer), and the meningeal layer (the inner layer).
- it attaches to the cranial bone
- the meningeal layer folds inward
- it contains these other components called flax cerebelli, flax cerebri, and tentorium cerebelli
What is the arachnoid mater? (describe it)*
- It is a transparent membrane over the brain surface
- The subarachnoid space separates the arachnoid from the pia*
What is the pia mater? (describe it)*
It is very thin delicate membrane that closely follows all the contours of the brain surface
Explain the flow of cerebral spinal fluid through the brain (8 steps)
- The CSF is made and secreted by the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles
- The CSF flows through the interventricular foramina into the third ventricle
- More CSF is added in the third ventricle by the choroid plexus
- The CSF flows down the cerebral aqueduct and one median aperture from the subarachnoid space
- more CSF is added in the fourth ventricle by the choroid plexus
- The CSF flows out two lateral aperture and one medican aperture from the subarachnoid space
- The CSF covers the surfaces of the brain and spinal cord and fills the subarachnoid space
- The CSf is then reabsorbed into venous blood of the dural venous sinuses and the CSF returns to the bloodstream in the arachnoid granulations
What structures are involved in the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid?
- the choroid plexus (adds CSF)
- lateral ventricles
- third ventricle
- fourth ventricle
- interventricular foramina
- cerebral aqueduct
-lateral apertures - one median aperture
- subarachnoid space
- arachnoid granulations
What does the substantia nigra do?
It suppresses unwanted muscle contractions
What happens to the Substantia Nigra when someone has parkinson’s disease?
It is when the nerve cells in the Substantia Nigra degenerate (die) and can not suppress the unwanted muscle contractions
Which cranial nerves are only motor nerves? (5)*
Oculomotor(3), trochlear(4), abducens(6), accessory (11), hypoglossal nerves(12)
Which cranial nerves are only sensory nerves?(3)*
Olfactory (1), Optic (2), Vestibulocochlear (8) nerves
Which cranial nerves are mixed? *(both motor and sensory nerves) (4)
Trigeminal (5), Facial (7), glossopharyngeal (9), Vagus (10) nerves
What are the two different cholinergic receptors?
Nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors
What are nicotinic receptors?
They occur at synapses where autonomic preganglionic neurons stimulate the postganglionic cells, they excit all cells with nicotinic receptors
What are muscarinic receptors?
they are involuntary effectors (like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland cells), they excite some cells and inhibit others
Compare and contrast the effectors of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
Somatic- Skeletal muscle
Compare and contrast the control of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- usually involuntary
Somatic- usually voluntary
Compare and contrast the Efferent pathways of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- two nerve fibers from CNS to effector with ganglion
Somatic- one nerve fiber from CNS to effector no ganglion
Compare and contrast the Distal nerve endings of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- Varicosities
Somatic- Neuromuscular junctions
Compare and contrast the neurotransmitters of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- ACh and norepinephrine (NE)
Somatic- Acetylcholine (ACh)
Compare and contrast the effect on target cells of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- excitatory or inhibitory
Somatic- always excitatory
Compare and contrast the effect of denervation of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic- Denervation hypersensitivity
Somatic- Flaccid paralysis
How do somatic neural pathways work?
It is a motor neuron that is myelinated that reaches all the way to a skeletal muscle
How to autonomic neural pathways work?
the signal travels across two nerve fibers to get to the target organ. then the signal crosses a synapse where the neurons meet in an autonomic ganglion
Compare and contrast the origin in CNS in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- Thoracolumbar
Parasympathetic - Craniosacral
Compare and contrast the Location of ganglia in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- paravertebral ganglia adjacent to spinal column
Parasympathetic - terminal ganglia neat or within target organs
Compare and contrast the fiber lengths in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- Short preganglionic, long postganglionic
Parasympathetic - long preganglionic, short postganglionic
Compare and contrast the neuronal divergence in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- Extensive
Parasympathetic - Minimal
Compare and contrast the effects of system in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- widespread and general
Parasympathetic - more local and specific
What are the main differences of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
Sympathetic - This is the flight or fight nervous system. It reduces blood flow to the skin and digestive tract, increases blood glucose and heart rate, pupils dilate, and decreases digestion and waste elimination
Parasympathetic - It is the calming effect on many body functions. “rest and digest”. Decreases heart rate and stimulate (increases) digestion and waste elimination
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
The eye
Parasympathetic- Constricts pupil
Sympathetic- Dilates pupil
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
salivary gland
Parasympathetic- Stimulates salivary gland secretion
Sympathetic- Inhibits salivary gland secretion
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
lungs
Parasympathetic- Constricts bronchi in lungs
Sympathetic- relaxes bronchi in lings
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Heart
Parasympathetic- slows heart
Sympathetic- accelerates heart
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Stomach and Intestines
Parasympathetic- Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines
Sympathetic- inhibits activity of stomach and intestines
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Pancreas
Parasympathetic- Stimulates activity in pancreas
Sympathetic- inhibits activity in pancreas
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Gallbladder
Parasympathetic- stimulates gallbladder
Sympathetic- inhibits gallbladder
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Bladder
Parasympathetic- promotes emptying bladder
Sympathetic- inhibits emptying bladder
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Genitalia
Parasympathetic- promotes erection of genitalia
Sympathetic- promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions
What parts of the body are effected by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
- heart
- lungs
- digestive tract
- urinary tract
- blood vessels
- sweat glands
- arrector muscles
- pupils
- genitalia
Heart rate increases with sympathetic stimulation and decreases with parasympathetic stimulation. How can these contrasting effects be explained?
The heart contains different receptors for the NE and Ach
How do preganglionic fibers and postganglionic fibers communicate?
Postganglionic - they communicate in the gray ramus
Preganglionic - they communicate in the white ramus
What are paravertebral ganglia?
THey are a series of ganglia along each side of the vertebral column
What are prevertebral ganglia?
They contribute to a network called the abdominal aortic plexus
How does the brain recieve pain from our body?
By nociceptors
What are nociceptors?
they are dense receptors in the skin and mucous membranes and are everywhere except the brain and liver
What are the two main pathways that pain signals reach the brain? (pain coming from the head and pain from below the head)
pain from the head - the cranial nerves to the brain
pain from below the head - it travels through the spinothalamic tract, spinoreticular tract and gracile fasciculus
What are the two different nocioreceptors? And explain them
Myelinated - “fast pain” or first pain that feels sharp, localized and stabbing pain
Unmyelinated - “ slow pain” or second pain which is longer lasting, dull, and diffuse feeling
What are all the components of the middle ear? (5)
- tympanic membrane
- tympanic cavity
- auditory tube
- auditory ossicles
- muscles of the middle ear
What is the role of the tympanic membrane?
It closes the inner end of the auditory canal and separates it from the middle ear
What is the role of the tympanic cavity? and explain it
It is filled with air that enters by way of the auditory tube. It has continuous air filled spaces called mastoid cells because of the mastoid process
What is the role of the auditory tube? and explain it
It equalizes air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane. It is a passage way for airflow
What is the role of the auditory ossicles? and explain it
The auditory ossicles transmit sound vibration from the tympanic membrane across the tympanic cavity to the inner ear
What are the names of the three auditory ossicles?
Malleus
incus
stapes
Describe each of the three bones of the auditory ossicles
Malleus- attaches to the medial side of the tympanic membrane and transfers the vibrations to the incus
Incus - it a triangular shape that touches the malleus and transfers the vibrations to the stapes
Stapes- smallest bone in the body and transfers sound vibration to inner eat
What is the role of the skeletal muscles in the middle ear? and explain it
When there are loud noises the muscles contract and dampen the vibrations of the ossicles. Essentially they protect the ossicles
What are the name of the two skeletal muscles in the middle ear and where are they located in the ear?
Stapedius muscle - it is on the posterior wall of the cavity and is on the stapes
Tensor tympani muscle - it is on the auditory tube wall
What is the purpose of the semicircular ducts?
They help with head rotation
What are the names of the three different semicircular ducts? And their functions
Posterior duct- tilting of head from one shoulder to another
Lateral duct- the NO rotation of the head movements
Anterior duct- does the nodding yes head movements
What are the purposes of the Utricle and saccule?
Utricle- it detects the horizonal motions (forward and backward, left and right motions)
Saccule- it detects the vertical motions (standing up and sitting down)
What is the difference between the endolymph and perilymph watery fluids in the ear?
endolymph- inner fluid of the ear suspended in perilymph
perilymph- outer fluid within the osseous labyrinth filled with CSF and connected to the subarachnoid space
What does accommodation mean in regards to control of lens in the eye?
When the lens changes its anterior/posterior thickness to focus on images properly
What happens to the lens of an eye for us to read?
The lens must be thicker
What happens to the lens of the eye for us to look at things in the distance?
The lens must be thinner
What is the difference between myopia and hyperopia in control of lens?
Myopia- You can see close up but not far away, the eyeball is too long
Hyperopia- You can see far away but not close up, the eye ball is too short
What are the different hormones in the hypothalamo-hypophysial tract?
- Oxytocin
- Anti-diuretic h.
What are the different features of the pituitary gland?
The gland is attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum and is partially enclosed in the sella turcica. It also had the anterior and posterior pituitary as part of the gland
What are some important components of the anterior pituitary gland?
It has NO nervous connection and has a portal system called the hypophysial portal system.
What is the hypophysial portal system in the anterior pituitary?
It is a portal system which allows blood to flow through two capillary beds
What is the posterior pituitary?
It is just a mass of nervous tissue
What are the different thyroid horomones?
- T3 (triiodothyronine)
- T4 (Tetraiodothyronine)
- Calcitonin
What are the functions of the thyroid hormones T3 (triiodothyronine), T4 (Tetraiodothyronine), and calcitonin?
- T3 (triiodothyronine) - stimulates prenatal and childhood development and bone growth
- T4 (Tetraiodothyronine)- this is inactive mostly
- Calcitonin- decreases blood calcium
What are is the parathyroid hormone? and what is it’s function?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- It raises calcium levels in the blood
What is the function of the hormones that the thymus produces?
Makes and matures for certain white blood cells
What is the function of the hormones that the pancreas produces?
It is called glucagon and it promotes the breaking down of glycogen to glucose in the liver
What makes the hormones special in the adrenal gland?
It makes more than 25 steroid hormones called corticosteroids
What is the CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)?
Promotes secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone
What is the TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)?
promotes secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone and prolactin
What is the GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone)?
Promotes secretion of growth hormone
What is the PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone)?
inhibits secretion of prolactin
What is the GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
Promotes secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
What is the GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone)?
Inhibits secretion of growth hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone
What are the differences between the endocrine system and the nervous system?
Endocrine- It releases hormones into the blood that are not sent to one specific tissue or organ but eventually get there. It acts slower and is long lasting
Nervous- It uses very specific mechanisms to influence target cells that only effect that tissue. It acts faster and is not long lasting
Explain the anatomy of the spinal cord
It is the information highway that connects the brain with the lower body. It is a cylinder of nervous tissue that arises from the brainstep
What are the cervical enlargement and lumbosacral enlargement?*
Cervical enlargement- gives rise to nerves of the upper limbs
Lumbosacral enlargement- gives rise to the nerves of the lower limb and pelvic region. and forms the cauda equina
What is the function of the cauda equina?
It innervates the pelvic organs and lower limbs
What are spinal meninges in the spinal cord?
They are protective layers of the spinal cord that separate the soft tissue of the central nervous system from the bones of the vertebra
What is the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and the pia mater as a spinal meninge?
Dura mater- the outermost layer that is tough
Arachnoid mater- the middle layer that is delicate and web like strands that extend inward and fuse to the pia mater
Pia mater- The innermost layer that is directly attached to the spinal cord
What is the epidural space?
It is a space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater that has blood vessels, loose CT, and adipose tissue
What is the subarachnoid mater?
The space between the stands in the arachnoid mater that is filled with CSF and occupied by the cauda equina
What is the difference between the gray matter and white matter?*
Gray matter- is the site of synaptic contact between neurons and is the site of synaptic integration
White matter- it provides ways of communication within the CNS and has myelinated axons
What are the 6 ascending tracts?
Gracile fasciculus
Cuneate fasciculus
Spinothalamic
Spinoreticular
Posterior spinocerebellar
Anterior spinocerebellar
What are the functions of the 6 ascending tracts?*
Gracile fasciculus- sensations of limb and trunk position and movement, visceral pain and vibration all below T6
Cuneate fasciculus- sensations of limb and trunk position and movement, visceral pain and vibration all T6 and above
Spinothalamic- sensations of light touch, tickle, itch, temperature, pain, and pressure
Spinoreticular- sensation of pain from tissue injury
Posterior spinocerebellar- Feedback from muscles
Anterior spinocerebellar- Feedback from muscles
What are the differences between somatic and visceral reflexes?
Somatic- They are responses of skeletal muscles, controlled by the nervous system
Visceral- They are responses of glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Controlled by the autonomic system
Explain the proximal branches of the spinal nerve
There are 6 to 8 rootlets that form the anterior root and posterior root of the spinal nerve. The two roots then merge to form the spinal nerve
How does the anterior ramus differ from one region of the trunk to another?*
It differs because in the thoracic region it forms an intercostal nerve. And everywhere else the anterior ramus forms the nerve plexuses
What is the scientific definition for blood?
Liquid connective tissue composed of extracellular matrix & cells
What is matrix in your blood?
It is blood plasma
What does cells + platelets = >
Formed elements
What are the formed elements in blood? And what are they?
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
Platelets (fragments of bone marrow cells) – lack nuclei
Leukocytes (white blood cells) x 5 types
How many liters of blood does an average adult body have? (male and female)
Female 4-5L
Male 5-6L
What is blood plasma mostly made out of?
Mostly water 92%
What else is blood plasma made out of besides mostly water?
- proteins
-nutrients (glucose, amino acids, lactic acids, lipids, and others)
-electrolytes - nitrogenous wastes
-hormones - gases
What are albumins as a plasma protein?
They are plasma proteins that contribute to viscosity (the thickness) and osmolarity (the concentration of particles that cannot pass through) in the blood
What are globulins as a plasma protein?
They are antibodies and play roles in solute transport, clotting and immunity
What are fibrinogen as a plasma protein?
They are clotting proteins
What specific type of globulin does antibodies?
The gama globulins
What are the two main functions of red blood cells?
- To transport oxygen to tissues
- pick up CO2 and unload it in the lungs
What do red blood cells lack? (like organelles and stuff)
- nucleus, mitochondria, DNA and almost all organelles
What doe red blood cells rely on to produce ATP?
Anaerobic fermentation
Why can red blood cells transport oxygen?
Because they do not do anaerobic respiration
What does the biconcave shape of the red blood cell allow it to do? (why do they have it?)
So they can bend, stretch, fold and pass through the tiniest of blood vessels
What type of molecules do red blood cells carry with them?
Hemoglobin
What is the product made when red blood cells breakdown? What disease does it cause?
Bilirubin and it causes jaundice
What happens during Hematopoiesis in the red blood cell life cycle?
It makes the red blood cells, white blood cells, and paletes
What happens during Hematopoietic tissues in the red blood cell life cycle?
Tissues that produce blood cells
What happens in the utero during the life cycle of red blood cells?
Stem cells rise and give rise to red blood cells
What happens at birth during the life cycle of red blood cells?
the liver stops producing red blood cells
What happens just after birth during the life cycle of red blood cells?
The spleen stops producing red blood cells but it continues to produce white blood cells
What happens when you are growing up and living life during the life cycle of red blood cells? (everything after birth)
The red bone marrow produces red blood cells
What is erythropoiesis?
Red blood cell production
Explain how a stem cell becomes a red blood cell through erythropoiesis
The stem cell becomes an erythrocyte colony-forming unit (ECFU), then it gets a hormone attached to it called the hormone erythropoietin which turns it into an erythroblast (which synthesizes hemoglobin). After the hormone is attached the nucleus dies and it turns into a reticulocyte and is ready to turn into a red blood cell.
What are the 5 types of leukocytes?
- Neutrophils
- Basophils
- Eosinophil
- lymphocytes
- monocytes
Describe the Neutrophils as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
They are are aggressively antibacterial cells.
Describe the Basophils as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
secrete two chemicals that aid in the body’s defense processes: histamine and heparin
Describe the Eosinophils
as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
Defends against allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and diseases of the spleen and CNS (central nervous system)
Describe the Lymphocytes as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
Do many different immune functions, which include destructions of cancer cells and warding off microbial pathogens
Describe the Monocytes as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
They transform into large tissue cells and they do it during inflammation and viral infections
What is anemia?
Decreased oxygen carry in the red blood cells
What is Polycythemia? (blood disease)
Too many red blood cells in a hemocrit count. Results are cancer in blood marrow
What is leukopenia disorder?
It is white blood cell deficiency
What is leukemia?
Too much white blood cells and too little of platelets
What is thrombocytopenia disorder?
Too little of platelets
How does blood flow into the heart?
Blood enters the right atrium from the superior (SVC) and inferior vena cava
How does blood flow out through the heart? (4 steps) (in to out)
- Blood in the right atrium flows through the right AV valve into the right ventricle
- Then the ventricle contracts and it forces the pulmonary valve open
- Blood then flows through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk
- Blood is then distributed by the right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs
How does blood return back into the heart?
It returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium
How does the blood flow in the heart when it returns from the lungs? (5)
- Blood in the Left atrium flows through left AV valve into LV
- The LV (left ventricle) contracts and forces the aortic valve open
- Blood then flows through the aortic valve into ascending aorta
- Then the blood in the aorta is distributed to every organ in the body
- then the blood returns again to the RA via the vena cavae
What are the differences between the right atrium and left atrium?
Right Atrium- the right atrium is part of the pulmonary circuit, pumps blood to the lungs,
Left Atrium- Is part of the systemic circuit, pumps blood to the body, visible from the posterior side
What are the differences between the left ventricle and the right ventricle?
Left Ventricle- It forms the apex and inferoposterior position, Part of the systemic circuit
RIght Ventricle- It is the most anterior portion of the heart, part of the pulmonary circuit
What are the roles of veins and arteries in regards to blood flow?
Arteries- takes oxygenated blood away from the heart
Veins- take deoxygenated blood to the heart
What is the epicardium of the heart wall?
The most outside layer of the heart (most superficial layer). Most have simple squamous epithelium but there are some areas that are thicker and have visceral pericardium.
What is the myocardium of the heart wall?
They are composed of cardiac muscle, and performs the work of the heart. Thickness varies
What is the endocardium of the heart wall?
Line the interior part of the heart chambers. It also covers the valves and inner lining of blood vessels. HAS NO ADIPOSE TISSUE
What are coronary sulcus associated with the chambers?
Encircles the heart near the base and separates the atria above from the ventricles
What are the anterior interventricular sulcus associated with the chambers?
extend down the heart from the coronary sulcus to the apex (out front)
What are the posterior interventricular sulcus associated with the chambers?
Extend down the heart from the coronary sulcus to the apex (down the back)
What are the pectinate muscles associated with the chambers?
Internal ridges found in the right atrium and in both of the auricles
What are the trabeculae carneae associated with the chambers?
Internal ridges found in both the ventricles
What structures are involved in the cardiac conduction system? and define them (4)
- SA nodes (It is the pacemaker of the heart which initiates each heartbeat and determines the heart)
- AV nodes (located at the lower end of the interatrial septum near the right AV valve)
- AV bundles (A cord of modified cardiomyocytes)
- Subendocardial conducting network (distributes excitation through ventricular myocardium)
Explain the steps on how the cardiac conduction system works (how it flows)
- The SA nodes fire
- The excitation spread through the atrial myocardium
- AV node fires
- The excitation spreads down the AV bundle and forks into right and left bundle branches
- The bundle branches give rise to the conducting cardiac myofibers and spread throughout the ventricular myocardium
What are the different names for the right atrioventricular valve?
- R-AV valve
- Tricuspid valve
What are the different names for the left atrioventricular valve?
- L-AV valve
- Bicuspid valve
- mitral valve
What are the different names for the aortic valve
Semilunar valve
What are the different names for the pulmonary valve?
Semilunar valve
Define the right atrioventricular valve
Located between the right atrium and the right ventricle, 3 cusps, THEY HAVE CHORDAE TENDINEAE
Define the Left atrioventricular valve
Located between the left atrium and left ventricle, 2 cusps, THEY HAVE CHORDAE TENDINEAE
Define the pulmonary valve
Located between and controls the opening from the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk, 3 cusps, THEY HAVE NO CHORDAE TENDINEAE
Define the aortic valve
Located between and controls the ventricles into the aorta, 3 cusps, THEY HAVE NO CHORDAE TENDINEAE
What is Chordae Tendineae?
The connect the valves to papillary muscles (they are like the lines of a parachute)
What are papillary muscles?
They contract along the ventricular myocardium to prevent inversion, and they tug on the chordae tendineae.
What is the main purpose of the papillary muscles?
Prevents the AV valve from bulging excessively into the atria or flipping inside out like an umbrella can
What does the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus cause in a fetal heart?
Causes most of the blood to bypass the pulmonary circuit
What happens to the foramen ovale when the flap seals in a fetal heart?
It turns into fossa ovalis
What happens to the ductus arteriosus several hours after birth in a fetals heart?
It becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
Define foramen ovale
Allows some blood to bypass the pulmonary circuit
Define Ductus arteriosus
Allows most of the blood in pulmonary trunk and aortic trunk to bypass lungs by spending it directly to the aorta. MOST BLOOD USES THIS BYPASS
What are the structures involved in fetal circulation?
- Foramen ovale
- ductus arteriosus
- fossa ovalis
- ligamentum arteriosum
- umbilical arteries
- medial umbilical ligaments
- umbilical veins
- round ligament of liver
Explain how nerve regeneration works in the CNS*
IT IS IMPOSSIBLE IT CANNOT BE DONE
Where does the cauda equina run through?
L2 to S5 and is horsetail like
What part of the brain does parkinson’s disease attack?*
Substantia Nigra
What does the ANS system control?
glands, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
What does it mean to be a cholinergic receptor?
It binds with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
What is another name for prevertebral ganglion?
Collateral ganglion
what is the modiolus?
The screw like axis of spongy bone that the cochlea winds around
What surrounds the membranous labyrinth?
the perilymph
What hormones does the thymus produce?
Thymopoietin, thymosin, thymulin
What is the function of the luteinizing hormone?
To boost testosterone, and help with the menstrual cycle
What is critical to survival? (pertaining the red blood cells)
Erythrocytes carrying Oxygen
What type of things do red bone marrow produce?
White blood cells, red blood cells, platelets
tendinous cords are involved in heart conduction True or False
FALSE
What disease results from kidney failure?
Anemia
What is the stapedius muscle and what does it prevent?
It is on the posterior wall that connects to the stapes and it damaged then it will allow loud sounds to damage the stereocilia
What bends hair cells?
The endolymph
Define the lens cortex
it uses nociceptors to create images
Define the fovea centralis
Forms detailed vision in pit in retina
What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?
TRH
GHRH
PIH
GnRH
GHIH
