FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE Flashcards
Define radiography
- It gives off harmful radiation
- The bone appears white and blocks off the radiation
- The air behind appears black because the radiation can go through it
- And organs appear grey
Contrast medium is used for visualization of hollow organs
Define CT scans
- This still uses radiation
- It uses X rays and a computer generates images of thin slices of the body like a coin
- The computer stacks a series of these images to construct a 3-D image of the body
- It is used to identify tumors, kidney stones, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages
DSR ( Dynamic Spatial Reconstructor) produces 3D video images
Define MRI
- There is no exposure to harmful radiation
- Another type of fMRI (functional moment to moment changes in physiology
- It does soft tissue visualization
- You lie in a tube a surround by a powerful electromagnet
Can identify ANYTHING
Define sonography
- No radiation
- Sonogram (obstetrics)
- Echocardiography (beating heart)
- It reflects the ultrasound waves
Second oldest and second widely used method
Define PET scans
- Used to assess the metabolic state of tissue and uses radiation
- It begins with an injection of radioisotopes into patients bloodstream labeled as glucose
- The glucose produces a color image that shows which tissues were using the most glucose
- Damaged tissue consumes little or no glucose and appears dark
- Shows tissue death from heart attack
- It is an example of nuclear medicine use of radioisotopes
What structures are in the axial region?
Head, Neck, Trunk
What structures are in the appendicular region?
Upper limbs, lower limbs, and all the girdles
Where is the epigastric region located?
The upper middle part of the body (stomach)
Where is the Ubmilical region located?
The middle part of the body (the region of the belly button and small intestine)
Where is the hypogastric region located?
The lower middle part of the body (where the reproductive structures are)
Where are the right and left hypochondriac regions located?
Top lateral areas on the trunk area
Where are the left and right lumbar regions located?
middle lateral areas on the trunk area
Where are the left and right Inguinal regions located?
Bottom lateral areas on the trunk area
What are the 2 cavities in the trunk called? And where are they located?
Thoracic cavity (superior part of the trunk)
Abdominopelvic cavity (the inferior part of the trunk
What are the 2 cavities in the Abdominopelvic cavity called? What organs do they contain?
Abdominal cavity (digestive organs, spleen, kidneys ureters)
Pelvic cavity (Distal large intestine, urinary bladder, urethra, reproductive organs)
What is the serous membrane peritoneum and where is it located in the body?
It lines the abdominal cavity and covers the organs in the cavity. It is located in the abdominal cavity
What is the serous membrane Pleura and where is it located in the body?
It surrounds the lungs. It is located in the thoracic cavity
What is the serous membrane Pericardium and where is it located in the body?
It surrounds the heart. It is located in the thoracic cavity
What is the difference between intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal?
Intraperitoneal (the whole organ is covered in peritoneum)
Retroperitoneal (only one side of the organ is covered by peritoneum)
What is the difference between visceral serous membranes and parietal serous membranes?
Visceral (The inner membrane lining the body cavity and attaches to the organ directly)
Parietal (The outer membrane that lines the body cavity wall)
Define the characteristics of epithelial tissues
- held together by cell junctions
- no extracellular matrix
- It covers organs a surfaces and forms glands
- There for protections, secretion, and absorption
- It is avascular
Define the characteristics of connective tissue
- highly vascular
- it is the most abundant tissue in the body
- produce fibers (fibroblasts)
- eat bacteria and debris (macrophages
- Are white blood cells (Leukocytes)
- Produce antibodies (Plasma cells)
- Secrete heparin and Histamine (mast cells)
- have fat cells (adipocytes)
Define the characteristics of muscle tissue
- It contracts and shortens
- It conducts or impulses
- very little extracellular matrix
Define the characteristics of nervous tissue
- It is specialized for communication via electrical and chemical signal
- Neurons (detect stimuli respond quickly and transmit info
- Glial cells (supports the neurons)s
Where in the body does the Simple squamous epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the Alveoli/ari sacs, flat one layer of cells, diffuses O2
Where in the body does the Simple cuboidal epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the Kidney, Cube like one layer of cells, absorbs and secretes
Where in the body does the Simple columnar epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the stomach/small intestine, in columns on layer of cell, has a brush border
Where in the body does the Pseudostratified columnar epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the Trachea/lungs, has goblet cells
Where in the body does the Stratified cuboidal epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the Sweet gland, ovaries, and testes, Cube like two layers of cells
Where in the body does the Stratified squamous epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the esophagus, female reproductive tract, and anal canal , flat two layer of cells,
Where in the body does the Urothelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the Bladder, can stretch
Where in the body does the Stratified columnar epithelium surround/belong to in the body? And describe it
Found in the Salivary duct, pharynx, larynx, & male urethra , In columns two layers of cells
What is hyperplasia?
Tissue growth through cell multiplication
How do tissues grow?
Their cells increase in number or in size
How do skeletal muscles and adipose tissues grow?
Through hypertrophy
What is hypertrophy?
Where cells just get bigger they do not multiply
What is the stratum corneum of the epidermis?
- Keratinized and dead tissue cells
- Stops water loss and penetration
- top layer of the epidermis
What is the stratum lucidum of the epidermis?
- Only found in thick skin
- Cells that lack organelles
- second layer of the epidermis
What is the stratum granulosum of the epidermis?
- Consists of 3 to 5 layers of keratinocytes and some dendritic cells
- They are stained dark
- third layer of the epidermis
What is the stratum spinosum of the epidermis?
- Several layers of keratinocytes
- The thickest layer of the epidermis
- Mitosis takes place here
- Has melanin
- fourth layer of the epidermis
What is the stratum basale of the epidermis?
- Deepest layer
- Only one cell thick
- Mitosis takes place here
Has melanin
What are keratinocyte cells as cells of the epidermis?
- Synthesize keratin
- Cells that die and flake off
What are stem cells as cells of the epidermis?
Undifferentiated cells that divide and give rise to keratinocytes
What are melanocyte cells as cells of the epidermis?
Make melanin (the brown or black pigment)
What are tactile (merkel) cells as cells of the epidermis?
Touch receptors that join with nerves (few of these)
What are dendritic (langerhans) cells as cells of the epidermis
Stand guard against the pathogens
What is the dermis?
- Connective tissue of skin
- Beneath the epidermis
- Has fibroblasts
- Contains smooth muscle
- Fibroblasts are CT cells of the dermis
What is hyaline cartilage?
It is the cartilage at the end of adjoining bones (at the joints)
What is the hypodermis?
- Areolar and adipose tissue just underneath the skin (fat)
- Not a true layer of skin
- Highly vascular
- drugs are injected here
What is osseous tissue?
Essentially it is connective tissue with a hard matrix. it has collagen to help with bending and stress on the bone. It also has minerals to help the bone resist compression.
What is bone marrow and where is it found?
It is found in the medullary cavity of bones. Red bone marrow forms all types of blood cells and yellow bone marrow is fat cells
What is fibrocartilage?
Has collagenous that resist tearing and helps with strength and is found in intervertebral discs. And is in between hyaline cartilage and dense regular CT.
What is appositional growth?
How bones grow in diameter and thickness
What are the organs of the skeletal system?
Bone, Blood, Bone marrow, Cartilage, Adipose tissue, Nervous tissue, Fibrous connective tissue
What is elongated growth?
They grow in length using growth plates
Why do adults have less bones than children do?
Because the bones fuse together so therefore there are less bones.
Define the characteristics of the C1 vertebra
It is a flat bone that does the yes motion and articulates with the occipital bone of the skull
Define the characteristics of the hyoid bone
It is at the base of the tongue and does not articulate with any other bone (it is floating)
What is endochondral ossification?
It is where cartilage is replaced to become bone to form the skeleton
What is the epiphyseal line?
It is the result of the epiphyseal plate that has been ossified
What are the secondary curvatures (lordosis) of the spine?
Cervical and lumbar curvatures that appear after crawling and walking
What is the primary curvature (kyphosis) of the spine?
Thoracic and pelvic curvatures
What is Scoliosis of the spine?
abnormal lateral curvature, most common
What is Hyperkyphosis
(hunchback) of the spine?
Abnormal posterior thoracic curvature
What is Hyperlordosis
(swayback) of the spine?
abnormal anterior lumbar curvature
What are the latin names for Fibrous joints, Cartilaginous joints, Bony joints, and Synovial joints?
Fibrous joints- Synarthrosis
Cartilaginous joints- Amphiarthrosis
Bony joints- Synostosis
Synovial joints- Diarthrosis
What are fibrous joints?
- Joints that are united by fibrous tissue
Have little to no movement
What are cartilaginous joints?
- Bones are linked by cartilage
- little movement
What are bony joints?
- Immovable joints that form when the gap between two bones ossifies
- only in the cranium
What are synovial joints?
- they are joints that move
- they are joints in the elbow and knees and knuckles
What are sarcolemma?
- This forms tunnels called transverse tubules (t) tubules
- The t-tubules carries electrical signals from the cell surface into the interior which causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to open
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
- This is a place where fluid collects for Ca2+
- The Ca2+ activates muscle contraction
What are terminal cisterns?
- Is part of the SR and they are dilated end sacs
They are calcium storage site
What are sarcoplasm?
- Is the cytoplasm in a muscle fiber
- This contains glycogen ( a carb that provides energy for the cell)
- And it also contains myoglobin ( a red pigment which provides some of the oxygen)
What is the sarcomere?
- A segment of myofibril
- The sarcomere is the contractile unit of the muscle fiber (the functional subunit)
- it shortens during contraction
What are myofilaments?
- Fibrous protein strands that carry out the contraction process
- The three kinds of myofilaments are thick (myosin), thin (actin), and elastic
What are thick myofilaments?
- Made of several hundred molecules of a motor protein called myosin
- Other word for it is myosin
- Looks like a golf club
What are thin myofilaments?
- Composed of intertwined strands of protein called ACTIN or FIBROUS ACTIN
- Looks like a necklace
What is the difference between tropomyosin and troponin
Tropomyosin- large strand that goes around the actin
Troponin- It is attached to the tropomyosin and binds to calcium when excited
What is the G region in the trorpomyosin?
It binds to the head of the thick myofilament
What are elastic filaments?
- It goes through the core of a each thick filament (myosin) and anchors tit to structures called the z discs
- They stabilize the myofilaments
Why do muscles shorten?
Because their individual sarcomeres shortens
Define the characteristics of skeletal muscles
Voluntary movement, is striated, and attach to bone
Define the characteristics of cardiac muscles
Involuntary movement, striated, they cannot regenerate easily
What is a second class lever?
The fulcrum is on one end effort is on the other end and the resistance is in the middle
Define the characteristics of smooth muscles
- Involuntary movement
- Nonstriated.
- Fusiform cell shape.
- Tapered at ends.
What is a first class lever?
The fulcrum is in the middle and the effort and resistance is on either side
What is a third class lever?
The fulcrum is on one end and the resistance is on the other end and the effort is in the middle
What happens when the MA value of a lever is greater than 1.0?
the lever produces more force but less speed or distance
What happens when the MA value of a lever is less than 1.0?
the lever produces more speed or distance but less force
What does HA and LA equal to?
HA- High power, lower speed
LA = Low power, high speed
What is the direct attachment of muscle-bone attachment?
Close association with bone, little separation between bone and muscle
What is the indirect attachment of the muscle-bone attachment?
The muscle ends short of the bony destination, Tendon attaches muscle to bone
What are Oligodendrocytes as glial cells in the CNS?
- It makes myelin in CNS
- Forms myelin in brain and spinal cord
What are Ependymal cells as glial cells in the CNS?
They line the internal cavities of the brain and spinal cords. Similar to cuboidal epithelium
What are Microglia cells as glial cells in the CNS?
They are basically white cells that go through the CNS looking for debris or other problems and get rid of those problems
What are Astrocytes as glial cells in the CNS?
- Most abundant cell in the CNS
- They provide support and nourishment for neurons
What are schwann cells as glial cells in the PNS?
- Forms a sheath around the nerve fibers of the PNS
- They assist in conduction in PNS cells and regeneration of damaged nerve fibers
What are Satellite cells as glial cells in the PNS?
- Provide support and nourishment
- They surround somas of neurons in the ganglia
Define the term neuron
Carry out the system’s communicative role
What are the properties that a neuron does? And describe them
Excitatory- All cells respond environmental changes
Conductive- responds to stimuli by producing electrical signals
Secretion- When the electrical signal reaches the end of a nerve fiber it secrets a chemical called the neurotransmitter
What are Sensory (Afferent) Neurons?
convey info to the CNS
What are Interneurons?
always lie within CNS
What are Motor (Efferent) Neurons?
send signals to muscles and
glands (effectors)
What type of nerve are spinal nerves?
They are mixed nerves, they do sensory and motor stuff
What do spinal nerves create when they come together?
- When spinal nerves come together they create a posterior and anterior ramus
Where is the phrenic nerve located?
In the cervical plexus C1 to C5
Why is the phrenic nerve so important?
It plays an essential role in breathing
Where is the cervical plexus located
Located in the neck C1-C5
Where is the brachial plexus located and define the general anatomy
Located in the shoulder, C5-C6 form the superior tunk, C7 forms the middle trunk, C8 to T1 from the inferior trunk
Where is the lumbar plexus located and define the general anatomy
Located in the lower back, formed by anterior rami of nerves L1 to L5, have 5 roots and 2 divisions
Where is the sacral plexus located and define the general anatomy
Located below the lumbar, formed by anterior rami of nerves L4, L5
and S1 through S4
Where is the coccygeal plexus located and define the general anatomy
Located in the lower sacrum and coccygeal, formed by anterior rami of S4, S5, and Co1
What are the different components of the of the midbrain?
- metencephalon
- myelencephalon
- medulla oblongata
- pons
- cerebellum
What is the medulla oblongata responsible for as part of the midbrain?
Responsible for regulating the most basic functions of life:
blood pressure, breathing, and heart rate
What does the midbrain become?
The mesencephalon
What are the three divisions of the forebrain?
-Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus
Define the thalamus
involved in sensory processing
and in the memory and emotional functions of the limbic system
Define the hypothalamus
Major control center of the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system
Define the epithalamus
The epithalamus is a very small mass of tissue composed mainly of the pineal gland
Define the lateral ventricles and state how many there are in the body
- There are 2
- Largest; form an arc in each cerebral hemisphere; interventricular foramen
connects lateral ventricles to third ventricle
Define the fourth ventricles and state how many there are in the body
- There are 1
- Between pons and cerebellum; forms the
central canal which extends through the
medulla oblongata into the spinal cord
Define the third ventricles and state how many there are in the body
- There are 1
- A canal called the ‘cerebral aqueduct’
passes down the core of midbrain and
leads to fourth ventricle
What is the brain barrier system?
strictly regulates what substances get from the bloodstream TO THE brain TISSUE
What is the Blood–CSF barrier as another component of the brain barrier system?
- Seals nearly all of the blood capillaries throughout the brain tissue.
- Astrocytes stimulate the formation of tight junctions BETWEEN endothelial cells
What are the main differences of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
Sympathetic - This is the flight or fight nervous system. It reduces blood flow to the skin and digestive tract, increases blood glucose and heart rate, pupils dilate, and decreases digestion and waste elimination.
Parasympathetic - It is the calming effect on many body functions. “rest and digest”. Decreases heart rate and stimulate (increases) digestion and waste elimination.
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
The eye
Parasympathetic- Constricts pupil
Sympathetic- Dilates pupil
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
salivary gland
Parasympathetic- Stimulates salivary gland secretion
Sympathetic- Inhibits salivary gland secretion
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
lungs
Parasympathetic- Constricts bronchi in lungs
Sympathetic- relaxes bronchi in lungs
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Heart
Parasympathetic- slows heart
Sympathetic- accelerates heart
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Stomach and Intestines
Parasympathetic- Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines
Sympathetic- inhibits activity of stomach and intestines
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Pancreas
Parasympathetic- Stimulates activity in pancreas
Sympathetic- inhibits activity in pancreas
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Gallbladder
Parasympathetic- stimulates gallbladder
Sympathetic- inhibits gallbladder
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Bladder
Parasympathetic- promotes emptying bladder
Sympathetic- inhibits emptying bladder
Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems based on what they do to a certain region of the body.
Genitalia
Parasympathetic- promotes erection of genitalia
Sympathetic- promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions
Compare and contrast the origin in CNS in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- Thoracolumbar
Parasympathetic - Craniosacral
Compare and contrast the Location of ganglia in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- paravertebral ganglia adjacent to spinal column
Parasympathetic - terminal ganglia neat or within target organs
Compare and contrast the fiber lengths in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- Short preganglionic, long postganglionic
Parasympathetic - long preganglionic, short postganglionic
Compare and contrast the neuronal divergence in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- Extensive
Parasympathetic - Minimal
Compare and contrast the effects of system in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic- widespread and general
Parasympathetic - more local and specific
What is the purpose of the middle ear?
it functions
to magnify vibrations of the
tympanic membrane by
passing through the auditory
ossicles
What is the purpose of the inner ear?
To help keep your balance
What are the structures in the middle ear?
- Tympanic membrane
- Tympanic cavity
- Auditory tube (Eustachian tube)
- Auditory ossicles
- Tensor tympani muscle
- Stapedius muscle
What are the structures in the inner ear?
- Osseous Labyrinth
- cochlea
- Vestibule
- semicircular ducts
- perilymph
- cochlear duct
- utricle
- semicircular canal
- endolymph
- membranous labyrinth
Where is the anterior chamber located in the eye? And what is it filled with? And what does it prevent?
The space between the cornea and the iris, it is filled with aqueous fluid, and it keeps the anterior region of the eyeball from collapsing
Where is the posterior chamber located in the eye? And what is it filled with? And what does it prevent?
- Located between the iris and the
lens - Also filled with aqueous fluid
-it keeps the posterior region of the eyeball from collapsing
Where is the vitreous chamber located in the eye? And what is it filled with? And what does it prevent?
- Located between retina and lens
- Filled with vitreous humor, keeps
posterior portion of eyeball from
collapsing
What is the TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)?
promotes secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone and prolactin
What hormones does the hypothalamus produce? (6)
- Corticotropin Releasing Hormone
- Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone
- Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
- Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone
- Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone
- Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone
What is the CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)?
Promotes secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone
What is the GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone)?
Promotes secretion of growth hormone
What is the PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone)?
inhibits secretion of prolactin
What is the GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
Promotes secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
What is the GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone)?
Inhibits secretion of growth hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone
What is the alpha cell of the pancreatic islets?
Secrete glucagon in between meals &
when glucose levels are low; causes a rise in blood sugar
What is the beta cells of the pancreatic islets?
secrete insulin during and immediately after a
meal in response to rising levels of glucose and amino acids
What are the delta cells of the pancreatic islets?
secrete somatostatin
(growth hormone-inhibiting hormone)
What are the PP cells of the pancreatic islets?
secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP) for 4 to 5 hours after a meal
What are the names of the hormones produced by the pituitary gland? (7)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Thyroid stiulantina hormone (TSH)
- Growth hormone (GH)
- Prolactin (PRL)
- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Growth hormone (GH
What is the function of the Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?
secretion of glucocorticoids
What is the function of the Thyroid stiulantina hormone (TSH)?
growth of thyroid and secretion of thyroid hormone
What is the function of the Growth hormone (GH)?
Stimulates growth
What is the function of the Prolactin (PRL)? (in males and females)
Female = making milk
Male = testosterone secretion and increase LH sensitivity
What is the function of the Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)? (in males and females)
Female = growth of ovarian follicles and secretes estrogen
Male = sperm production
What is the function of the Luteinizing hormone (LH)? (in males and females)
Female = ovulation production
Male = testosterone secretion
What happens during Hematopoiesis in the red blood cell life cycle?
It makes the red blood cells, white blood cells, and paletes
What happens during Hematopoietic tissues in the red blood cell life cycle?
Tissues that produce blood cells
What happens in the utero during the life cycle of red blood cells?
Stem cells rise and give rise to red blood cells
What happens at birth during the life cycle of red blood cells?
the liver stops producing red blood cells
What happens just after birth during the life cycle of red blood cells?
The spleen stops producing red blood cells but it continues to produce white blood cells
What happens when you are growing up and living life during the life cycle of red blood cells? (everything after birth)
The red bone marrow produces red blood cells
What is erythropoiesis?
Red blood cell production
Explain how a stem cell becomes a red blood cell through erythropoiesis
The stem cell becomes an erythrocyte colony-forming unit (ECFU), then it gets a hormone attached to it called the hormone erythropoietin which turns it into an erythroblast (which synthesizes hemoglobin). After the hormone is attached the nucleus dies and it turns into a reticulocyte and is ready to turn into a red blood cell.
Describe the composition of blood plasma
It is made up of 92% water. Then the rest of it is made up of nutrients, proteins, electrolytes, nitrogenous wastes, hormones, and gases
Describe the Neutrophils as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
They are are aggressively antibacterial cells.
Describe the Basophils as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
secrete two chemicals that aid in the body’s defense processes: histamine and heparin
Describe the Eosinophils
as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
Defends against allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and diseases of the spleen and CNS (central nervous system), and they phagocytize
Describe the Lymphocytes as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
Do many different immune functions, which include destructions of cancer cells and warding off microbial pathogens
Describe the Monocytes as on of the 5 types of the leukocytes
They transform into large tissue cells and they do it during inflammation and viral infections
What is the epicardium of the heart wall?
The most outside layer of the heart (most superficial layer). Most have simple squamous epithelium but there are some areas that are thicker and have visceral pericardium.
What is the myocardium of the heart wall?
They are composed of cardiac muscle, and performs the work of the heart. Thickness varies
What is the endocardium of the heart wall?
Line the interior part of the heart chambers. It also covers the valves and inner lining of blood vessels. HAS NO ADIPOSE TISSUE
What is the outer wall of the pericarium?
It is a fibrous sac called the fibrous pericardium that is not attached but surrounds the heart
What does the foramen ovale allow in fetal circulation?
Allows some blood to bypass pulmonary circulation by flowing from RA to LA and from there it will flow from the LV to aorta
What does the Ductus Arteriosus allow in fetal circulation?
- Allows most of the blood in pulmonary trunk to bypass lungs
by sending it directly to the aorta arch - Most blood uses this bypass
What does the Ductus Arteriosus turn into after it closes?
the “ligamentum arteriosum”
What does the foramen ovale turn into after it closes?
The fossa ovalis
How does blood flow into the heart?
Blood enters the right atrium from the superior (SVC) and inferior vena cava
How does blood flow out through the heart? (4 steps) (in to out)
- Blood in the right atrium flows through the right AV valve into the right ventricle
- Then the ventricle contracts and it forces the pulmonary valve open
- Blood then flows through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk
- Blood is then distributed by the right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs
How does blood return back into the heart?
It returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium
How does the blood flow in the heart when it returns from the lungs? (5)
- Blood in the Left atrium flows through left AV valve into LV
- The LV (left ventricle) contracts and forces the aortic valve open
- Blood then flows through the aortic valve into ascending aorta
- Then the blood in the aorta is distributed to every organ in the body
- then the blood returns again to the RA via the vena cavae
Define the characteristics of the Squamous alveolar cells (type I)
- Cover 95% of the alveolar surface area
- Their thinness allows for rapid gas exchange
between the alveolus and bloodstream
Define the characteristics of Great alveolar cells (type II)
- Produce surfactant which prevents the smallest bronchioles & alveoli from
collapsing when one exhales - They repair alveolar epithelium when damaged
- 5% of surface area.
- Outnumber type I cells even though the surface
area is less
Define the characteristics of Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
- These keep the alveoli free of debris
- These are the most numerous cells in the lungs
What are the differences between the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract?
upper respiratory tract- Has the Nose, pharynx (throat), and larynx (voice
box); from the nose through the larynx;
respiratory organs in head and neck
lower respiratory tract- Trachea, bronchi and lungs; from trachea
through lungs; respiratory organs of the
thorax
Define the laryngeal cartilage epiglottic
- Unpaired
- Most superior one
- Guards the opening into the larynx
- made of elastic cartilage
Define the laryngeal cartilage thyroid
- Unpaired
- Largest cartilage
- it covers the anterior and lateral aspects of the larynx
- made of hyaline cartilage
- The anterior peak is called the laryngeal prominence (adam’s apple)
Define the laryngeal cartilage cricoid
- Unpaired
- Inferior to the thyroid cartilage
- Is ring like
- Has the cricothyroid ligament that suspends the cricoid cartilage from the thyroid cartilage
- makes the box of the voice box
Define the laryngeal cartilage arytenoid
- Paired
- Posterior to the thyroid cartilage
- The intrinsic laryngeal muscles regulate speech by rotating the arytenoid cartilages
Define the laryngeal cartilage corniculate
- Paired
- Little horns attached to the upper ends of
the arytenoid cartilages - The arytenoid and corniculate cartilages
function in speech
Define the laryngeal cartilage cuneiform
- Paired
- Supports the soft tissues between the arytenoids and epiglottis
What is the function of the primary (main bronchi) of the bronchial tree?
inhaled (aspirated) objects lodge more in the right bronchus than the left
What is the function of the Lobar (secondary) bronchi of the bronchial tree? And how much are there on the right and left side
enter and supply the individual
lobes of the lungs); come directly off primary bronchi
- right 3
- left 2
What organs are in the right upper quadrant?
Gallbladder, right lobe of the liver
What is the function of the Segmental (tertiary) bronchi of the bronchial tree? And how much are there on the right and left side
Each of these ventilates on functionally independent unit of lung tissue called a bronchopulmonary segment
- right 10
- left 8
What are bronchioles?
Continuations of the airway that lack supportive cartilage
What organs are in the right lower quadrant?
Appendix, cecum, right ovary, right ureter
What organs are in the upper left quadrant?
Spleen, Stomach, left lobe of the liver
What organs are in the left lower quadrant?
Sigmoid colon, left ovary, left ureter
What are terminal bronchiole?
gives off two or more smaller RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES which have alveoli budding from their walls
What is the differences between Humoral immunity and Cellular immunity?
Humoral Immunity- Performed by B lymphocytes and antibodies
Cellular Immunity - Performed or carried out by cytotoxic T cells or T lymphocytes. The T cells attack enemy cells with lethal hit of toxic chemicals
What areas are lymph nodes concentrated in? (7)
- Cervical
- Axillary
- Thoracic
- Abdominal
- Intestinal & Mesenteric lymph nodes
- Inguinal
- Popliteal
What is the difference between the Right Lymphatic Duct and the Thoracic duct? (draw which part of the body they drain)
Right Lymphatic duct- Contains the right jugular, subclavian, and bronchomediastinal trunk. It drains the upper right limb, thorax, and head. And Empties into the right subclavian vein
Thoracic duct- It drains the rest of the body that the right lymphatic duct doesn’t. And contains the rest of the trunks. And it empties into the left subclavian vein
What are the different secondary lymphatic organs? (3) Why are they considered secondary lymphatic organs?
- Lymph nodes
- tonsils
- spleen
- Because the T and B cells migrate to these organs after they mature
What are the different Primary lymphatic organs? (2) Why are they considered Primary lymphatic organs?
- Red bone marrow (B cells)
- thymus (T cells)
- Because B and T cells learn to recognize antigens
What happens in the Thymus?
- Houses developing lymphocytes and secretes hormones
- Cortical epithelial cells seal off blood vessels
(form blood–thymus barrier) which isolates
developing lymphocytes from premature exposure
to bloodborne pathogens & develops T cells
What are the functions of the lymph nodes?
- cleanse lymph and to act as a
site of T and B cell activation - Germinal centers - where B cells multiply &
differentiate into plasma cells - They only have afferent lymphatic vessels
What are some features of the tonsils that are important?
- They have tonsillar crypts that are made of epithelium tissue
- it has a single pharyngeal tonsil
- a pair of palatine tonsils
- Has numerous lingual tonsils
What are some features of the spleen that are important?
- It is the largest lymphatic organ
- has red pulp and white pulp
- erythrocytes rupture in the spleen
What is the difference between red pulp and white pulp in the spleen?
Red Pulp- has a concentration of erythrocytes
White Pulp- Has lymphocytes and macrophages
Which of these cells are Innate immunity, Adaptive immunity, or both?
Basophil
Eosinophil
Neutrophil
Dendritic cell
Natural killer cell
Macrophage
B cell
T cell
Antibodies
CD4 + T cell
CD8 + T cell
Natural killer T cell
Innate
Basophil
Eosinophil
Neutrophil
Dendritic cell
Natural killer cell
Macrophage
Adaptive
B cell
T cell
Antibodies
CD4 + T cell
CD8 + T cell
Both
Natural killer T cell
T cell
What is the tissue type that allows for rapid diffusion of gases?
simple squamous alveolar cell tissue
Trace the airflow from where air enters into pulmonary alveoli (10 structures)
- It stars in the Nose
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Primary Bronchi
- Secondary bronchi
- Tertiary Bronchi
- Broncoiles
- Terminal Bronchioles
- Pulmonary Alveoli
Explain the flow of lymph into the bloodstream (5)
- Lymphatic capillaries converge to form collecting vessels
- Collecting vessels form lymphatic trunks
- Lymphatic trunks converge to form 2 collecting ducts
- The 2 collecting ducts make subclavian veins
- The subclavian veins send the lymph to the bloodstream
What are B and T cells when they begin their development?
They are Hematopoietic stem cells
What do B and T cells need to develop before doing immune reactions?
They need to develop antigen receptors on their surfaces which gives them immunocompetence
What is immunocompetence?
The ability to recognize, bine, and respond to an antigen
What would happen if we did not have negative selection?
We would get an autoimmune disease and it would be more common
What is negative selection?
It is when B and T cells react against the body’s own antigens and get destroyed because of it.
What are the 2 regions in the digestive tract?
- Digestive tract (alimentary canal/gut)
- Accessory organs
What is the digestive tract?
muscular tube extending from mouth to anus; measures about 16 ft long
What organs are apart of the digestive tract?
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
What does the stomach and intestines make?
the Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract)
What organs are considered accessory organs in the digestive system?
eeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
What is the mucosa as a tissue layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
- Lines the inner part of the digestive tract
- has a lot of lymphocytes
- has three layers to it
What is the muscularis externa as a tissue layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
- responsible for peristalsis and other movements that mix food & digestive enzymes & propel material through tract
- It is smooth muscle
What is the submucosa as a tissue layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
thicker layer of loose connective tissue
with blood vessels
What is the serosa as a tissue layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
-Composed of a thin layer of areolar tissue
- The pharynx, most of the esophagus & the rectum have no serosa
What are the three layers of the mucosa?
- epithelium
- Lamina Propria
- Muscularis mucosae
What is the epithelium tissue layer in the mucosa?
- It is simple columnar epithelium in the digestive tract, stomach, and intestines. Because it is softer
What is the lamina propria tissue layer in the mucosa?
loose connective tissue layer
What is the Muscularis mucosae tissue layer in the mucosa?
- thin layer of smooth muscle
-creating grooves & ridges that enhance surface area - improves digestion
What type of epithelium tissue are in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus & anal canal? And why?
stratified squamous epithelium, because it is more tough and has more layers
What kind type of tissue is in the pharynx esophagus and rectum since they have no serosa tissue?
adventitia
What are the 2 layers in the muscularis externa?
- Circular layer
- Longitudinal layer
What is the circular layer in the muscularis externa?
- inner layer that encircles the tract
What is the longitudinal layer in the muscularis externa?
- outer layer that runs longitudinally
what is the tissue layer in the esophagus? and What type of epithelium tissue is it?
mucosa and it is stratified squamous
epithelium
What is the function of the esophageal glands?
secrete lubricating mucus into the lumen
What is the muscularis externa tissue made of in the upper third of the esophagus?
ONLY Skeletal muscles
What is the muscularis externa tissue made of in the middle third of the esophagus?
skeletal and smooth muscles
What is the muscularis externa tissue made of in the lower third of the esophagus?
ONLY smooth muscles
Where is the superior opening of the esophagus located?
In between C6 and the Cricoid cartilage
How many liters can the stomach hold up to?
4 liters
Define the cardiac part of the stomach
small area within about 3cm of the
cardiac orifice
Where does the esophagus meet the stomach?
Where T7 vertebrae is
Define the fundus of the stomach
domelike roof superior to the
esophageal attachment
define the body of the stomach
makes up most of the stomach distal to
the cardiac orifice
define the pyloric part of the stomach
is a slightly narrower pouch at the
distal end of the stomach
Define the pylorus of the stomach
gateway from the stomach to the
duodenum
Define the pyloric sphincter of the stomach
- regulates the passage
of chyme into the duodenum - surrounds the pylorus
What types of glands are in the cardiac part , pyloric part, and the rest of the stomach?
Cardiac- Cardiac glands
Pyloric- Pyloric glands
Rest of the stomach- Gastric glands
What happens to the mucosa and submucosa tissue types in the stomach when it is full?
They become flat and smooth and empties stuff into the gastric rugae
What are the different types of cells in the Cardiac, pyloric, and Gastric glands?
- Mucous cells
- Regenerative (stem) cells
- Parietal cells
- Chief cells
- Enteroendocrine cells
What is the function of the mucous cell in the Cardiac, Pyloric, and gastric glands?
secrete mucus
What is the function of the Regenerative (stem) cells cell in the Cardiac, Pyloric, and gastric glands?
Make new cells
What is the function of the Parietal cells cell in the Cardiac, Pyloric, and gastric glands?
secrete HCl, intrinsic factor, & ghrelin
What is the function of the Chief cells cell in the Cardiac, Pyloric, and gastric glands?
produce pepsinogen, secrete fat digesting enzyme called gastric lipase; activated by HCl by parietal cells
What is the function of the liver?
Bile production
What is the function of the Enteroendocrine cells in the Cardiac, Pyloric, and gastric glands?
hormones
What is the function of the gallbladder?
Stores and concentrates bile
How many layers does the muscularis externa tissue have in the stomach? And which one is inner, middle, and outer layers?
- longitudinal muscle (outer)
- Circular muscle (middle)
- Oblique muscle (inner)
What type of epithelium tissue are the gastric pits lined with?
columnar epithelium
Where is the kidney situated in the body?
They are on the posterior abdominal wall.
What vertebra are the kidneys in between? And what number rib crosses the middle of the left kidney?
T12 to L3, and rib number 12
Where is the adrenal gland in relation to the kidney?
It is right above it
What are cortical nephrons?
- Nephrons that are beneath the renal capsule close to the kidney surface.
- have short nephron loops that go to the outer medulla before turning back
What are Juxtamedullary nephrons?
- Nephrons that are close tot he medulla.
- have long loops
- they are responsible for maintaining osmotic gradient for the medulla
What would happen if we did not have juxtamedullary nephrons?
We would not be able to concentrate the urine and conserve body water
What is the main difference between the arterial blood flow and the venous blood flow in the kidney?
The arterial blood flow has segmental arteries.
The venous blood flow DOES NOT HAVE segmental veins.
What is the function of the renal parenchyma in the kidney?
It produces urine
What structures of the kidney are in the renal sinus?
renal pelvis, renal calyces, blood, lymphatic vessels, nerves, etc
What is the renal cortex in the kidney?
The outer layer of the kidney
What is the renal medulla in the kidney?
The inner layer of the kidney which faces the sinus
What are renal columns and what do they lead to?
They are the extensions of the renal cortex and divide into renal pyramids.
What are the renal pyramids and what do they have in them?
They are the pyramid looking things, and they have Renal papilla facing the sinus
What are the renal papilla and what are the nestled in?
They are the things that go off the pyramids going in, and they are nestled in the minor calyx
What do 2 or 3 minor calyxes make?
The major calyx
What do 2 or 3 major calyxes make?
The renal pelvis
How does arterial blood flow work in the kidney? (7 steps)
- It starts in the aorta
- Goes to the renal artery
- Then to the Segmental artery
- Then to the Interlobar artery
- Then to the Arcuate artery which travels along the base of the pyramids in the kidney to the
- Cortical radiate artery that flows upward into the cortex
- To the Afferent arteriole
How does venous drainage/blood flow in the kidney? (8)
- It starts in the glomerulus
- To the Efferent arteriole
- To the Peritubular capillaries
- To the cortical radiate veins
- To the arcuate veins
- To the interlobar veins
- To the renal veins
- Then it drains into the inferior vena cava
How does venous drainage/blood flow in the kidney if the efferent arteriole doesn’t flow the blood to the peritubular capillaries?
It flows the blood to the vasa recta and the vasa recta flows the blood to the cortical radiate vein, or the arcuate vein. Then it does the normal flow.
Which kidney is positioned higher than the other?
The left kidney is higher than the right kidney
What are some excretion products of the kidney?
Toxic wastes, urea, uric acids, creatine, nitrogenous wastes
Are kidneys peritoneum organs or retroperitoneal organs?
They are retroperitoneal organs
What is the functional subunit of the kidneys?
The nephrons
Explain what the ureters are
A retroperitoneal muscular tube that extends from kidney to urinary bladder
what easily disrupts the ureters?
Kidney stones
What acts like a valve in the ureters?
A small flap of bladder mucosa
What is the urinary bladder?
The Muscular sac on the floor of pelvic cavity
What is the Detrusor muscle in the urinary bladder?
muscular layer of bladder wall which consists of three indistinctly separated layers of smooth muscles
What is the Rugae in the urinary bladder?
wrinkles of mucosa
What is the Trigone in the urinary bladder?
triangular region on floor of bladder defined by the openings of the two ureter inlets and one urethra outlet.
What is the function of the urethra?
It conveys urine out of the body
Define simple diffusion
(moves molecules and small things high to low concentration NO ENERGY)
Define Osmosis
(moves molecules and small things by WATER MORE WATER TO LESS WATER high to low concentration)
Define facilitated diffusion
(moves molecules and small things uses a transport protein to move things)
Define Active transport
(moves molecules and small things Low to High concentration it needs ATP and uses transport proteins)
What is the function of the rough ER?
To make proteins and the membranes of the entire cell.
Where is the hypodermis abundant and lack in the body?
It is not in the scalp but it is abundant in breasts, thighs, hips, and abdomen
What is a muscle fascicle?
is a bundle of muscle fibers
within a muscle; enclosed in a fibrous
perimysium
What other functions do myosin and actin do in other cells/body?
they function in cellular motility, mitosis and transport of intracellular materials
What are striations in sarcomeres?
It is the alternating arrangement of myofilaments (myosin and actin) that gives it this striated appearance
What is the A band, H band, and M band in sarcomeres?
A band- thick myofilaments lying side by side
H band- central region of A band that stains a little lighter due to lack of thin myofilaments
M band- anchors thick myofilaments together
What is the I band, and Z disc in sarcomeres?
I band- light stripe of thin myofilaments only
Z disc- midline of I band
What is multiunit and unitary in smooth muscle cells?
Multiunit- Each smooth muscle contracts by its self
Unitary- Several smooth muscle cells excite at once
What are the pubis and ischium united by?
Synostosis
what is the most common structural type of neuron?
The unipolar neurons
Are spinal nerves avascular or vascular?
Avascular
What forms the Blood-CSF barrier system?
ependymal cells that are held together by tight junctions in the blood-CSF barrier
What is the neurotransmitter that makes it possible for two organs to have different responses?
norepinephrine (NE)
What part of the ear makes it possible for a throat infection to spread to the ear?
The auditory tube
What does glucagon do to blood glucose levels and what type of cells secrete glucagon?
It raises blood glucose levels and alpha cells secrete glucagon
What organ is responsible for destroying old erythrocytes?
The Spleen (maybe kidney)
What type of cells activate B cells?
Helper T cells
What type of nephrons are beneath the renal capsule?
The cortical nephrons
