SPARKLING WINES 🍾 Flashcards
Pros and cons of Chardonnay for sparkling wines
Ideal for autolytic style, high acidity, low alcohol, no under-ripe flavours. Prone to spring frosts (early budding), coloure, millerandage. Susceptible to powdery mildew, grapevine yellows, and botrytis bunch rot (wet periods). High yields in the best years (no loss of quality).
Pros and cons of Pinot Noir for sparkling wines
It lends body to the blend. Prone to spring frosts (early budding), and coloure. Thin-skinned so more disease prone (downy mildew, botrytis bunch rot, fan leaf, leaf roll). Yields are more moderate than Chardonnay (quality drops in high yields).
Grape factors that can influence the style of the sparkling wine
- Intensity of aromas.
- Ability to retain acidity while ripening.
- How the base wine responds to autolysis where applicable (Chardonnay becomes creamy, Xarel-lo becomes toasty and smoky).
Main characteristics in a sparkling wine obtained from high yield
High acidity, low alcohol, delicate flavours.
Why is important to have healthy fruits for sparkling wine?
Effervescence can enhance the perception of any off-flavours from diseased fruit. The enzyme laccase released by botrytis-infected grapes can cause serious oxidation
Pros and cons of hand-harvesting for sparkling wine
✅ sorting at picking, post-harvest selection, minimised effects of splitting and crushing as well as oxidation (small crates)
❌ slow, labour-intensive, expensive
Pros and cons of machine-harvesting for sparkling wine
✅ faster, cheaper, night-time harvesting (cooler grapes)
❌ can rupture the skin (phenolic extraction and oxidation), no selection (by hand just prior to machine)
Pros and cons of using the whole-bunch pressing
Delicate juice, low in solids and phenolics, stems minimise the pressure required, fewer bunches can be loaded so more time consuming.
Main types of presses for sparkling wines
Pneumatic and basket.
How to reduce excessive tannin or colour before the first fermentation?
Fining.
Range of temperatures for the first fermentation of sparkling wines
14-20°C
Flocculation
The process by which fine particles clump together.
Main factors for blending in sparkling wines
- Balance (more body from Pinot Noir, higher acidity from Chardonnay).
- Consistency (non-vintage blend).
- Style (early-drinking and longer ageing styles from the same producer).
- Rosé wine (a blend of white and red wines is regulated by local laws).
- Complexity (different grape varieties, vineyard sites, vintages or base wines with different treatments).
- Minimisation of faults (blend with a larger volume of a sound wine).
- Volume (from different vineyards to produce viable volumes).
- Price (cheaper grape varieties like Meunier with more prestigious varieties like Pinot Noir to keep the price affordable).
Liqueur de tirage
A mixture of sugar, selected yeasts, yeast nutrients, a clarifying agent such as bentonite and/or alginate.
Properties needed from the selected sparkling wine yeasts for the second fermentation
Commencing fermentation with 9.5-11% abv, the moderate temperature of 16°C and pH below 3, withstanding high pressure, ability to flocculate.
Duration of the second fermentation
4-6 weeks
Liqueur d’expédition
A mixture of wine and sugar, or RCGM.
Maillard reaction
When the liqueur d’expédition reacts with compounds formed during yeast autolysis.
The main use for the transfer method
To avoid the cost of manual ridding yet retain the autolysis flavours. In Champagne is still used to fill small or large bottles.
The difference of transfer method compared to the traditional method
Same production up to riddling. After lees ageing, the wine is chilled to 0°C before discharge, the bottles are opened by a transfer machine and the wine is poured into pressurized receiving tanks. So, liqueur d’expédition, SO2 and filtration prior bottling as usual.
Main production phase for the ancestral method
Partly fermented must is put into bottles and the remaining sugar is converted into alcohol and CO2.
Main characteristics of pet nat wines
Low alcohol, slightly cloudy, dry to off-dry with unconventional flavours, no SO2 before bottling, early-drinking style.
Other names for the tank method
Cuve Close, Charmat, or Martinotti.
Key steps of the tank method
Ideal for large volumes of sparkling wines to be made inexpensively, quickly, and with significantly reduced labour costs in comparison to the traditional method. It preserves the primary aromas of the grapes.
The first fermentation is often slow and cool. The second fermentation takes place in reinforced tanks (arrested by cooling the wine at -5°C).
After second fermentation, the wine is cold stabilised to precipitate tartrates. The yeast is removed by centrifugation or filtration. Sugar levels may be adjusted, checking of SO2, wine is chilled to -2°C to stabilise and to reduce the effervescence, and then bottled with a counter-pressure filler.
Key steps of the carbonation
Injection with CO2 under pressure.
It leaves the aromas and flavour characteristics of base wine intact.
Bubbles accentuate any faults of the base wine.
CIVC
Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne
The typical style of a Champagne wine
White, fully sparkling, non-vintage Brut wine made from the blend of Pinot Noir, Meunier, and Chardonnay. Medium intensity aromas and flavours of green apple and lemon fruit with biscuit autolytic notes, high acidity, medium alcohol and a dry-tasting finish. From good to outstanding quality and mid- to premium-priced.
“Non-vintage” (NV) classification for Champagne
A wine blended from a number of vintages, same profile every year following a set house style.
At least 15 months of maturing in the producer’s cellar for (12 months on the lees).
“Vintage” classification for Champagne
By law, 100% of the wine must come from the year indicated (only in the best vintages, such as 2002 or 2008); it will still reflect the house style but showing the characteristics of the year.
At least 12 months on lees but it cannot be released until 3 years after tirage.
Rosé d’assemblage
A Champagne made by blending red wine with white.
Rosé de saignée
A Champagne made by skin maceration of black grapes and then the wine is ”bled off”.
Blanc de Blancs
White wine made from white grapes only; leaner and more austere in youth, unmatched ageing potential, developing notes of biscuits and hazelnuts.
Blanc de Noirs
White wine made from black grapes only; fuller bodied and age more rapidly than BdB wines.
Grand Cru (Champagne style)
On the label as a quality statement; all the grapes must have been grown within the vineyards belonging to Gran Cru villages.
Premier Cru (Champagne style)
On the label as a quality statement; all the grapes must have been grown within the vineyards belonging to Premier Cru and/or Gran Cru villages.
Prestige Cuvée (Champagne style)
The top wine in a Champagne producer’s range (Krug is specialised in making a range of prestige cuvées); strict selection of the best grapes with meticulous winemaking techniques; can be non-vintage or vintage.
Late release, recently disgorged wines (Champagne style)
Extended ageing on the lees, disgorged just before release onto the market, ready to be consumed immediately; different flavour profile from wines of the same vintage that were disgorged earlier, they seem more youthful; they age more rapidly than standard vintage wines (Bollinger RD or Dom Pérignon P2).
AOC Rosé des Riceys
Tiny appellation in Côte des Bar for still rosé wine from Pinot Noir.
AOC Coteaux Champenois
Appellation for still red, white, or rosé wines, but it’s mainly for a light-bodied, high acidity, pale ruby Pinot Noir.
Yeasts autolysis
Enzymatic breakdown of dead yeast cells, it usually continues for 4/5 years but it can last for 10 years, biscuit complexity.
The contribute of Dom Pierre Pérignon in the development of Champagne
He produced the first white wine from black grapes, invented Coquard press, blended wines from different areas to make superior wine, re-introduced the cork stopper into France and pioneered the use of stronger English glass. Fizziness was a fault for him.
Main facts in the history of Champagne during the 19th century
Controlled second fermentation in the bottle (measured amount of added sugar and yeast) and riddling using pupitres (by Madame Clicquot). Then, disgorgement by dipping the neck of the bottle in an ice-cold bath of salty water and establish a dry style of Champagne (1875-1900).
Main facts in the history of Champagne during the early part of the 20th century
Definition of Champagne vineyard area (1927), concept of echelle des crus (rating system to determine grape prices), and the blocage system (later called reserve wines, initially as an insurance policy against future disasters, then to reduce vintage variation by adding depth and complexity on the quality of NV Champagne).
Sub-regions of Champagne area
- Montagne de Reims;
- Vallée de la Marne;
- Côte des Blancs;
- Côte de Sézanne;
- Côte des Bar.
Climate in Champagne
Cool continental climate, with some oceanic influence, rain of 700 mm per year, the average annual temperature of 11°C. The result is light-bodied acidic wines made from grapes that give freshness and crispness.
Effects of climate-changing in Champagne
The warmer climate in the last 30 years has moved forward the harvest on average by 18 days, average acidity has dropped and potential alcohol has risen by 0.7%. So, more consistently ripe grapes and fewer poor vintages.
Composition of the soil in Champagne
Chalky soils with limestone subsoil and chalk itself. Chalk is highly porous and stores water, providing a steady supply of water even in dry periods. Vineyards at 90-300 m above the sea level.
Overview of Montagne de Reims
Well known for black grapes, Grand Cru villages of Aÿ, Mailly, Bouzy, Verzy, Verzenay, and Ambonnay. It’s more of a wide plateau than a mountain. North aspect for some top villages (cool-climate sites, so more frost-prone). Wines with very high acidity and austere in youth. Also important vineyards of Chardonnay. Grand Crus are on chalky soils.
Overview of Vallée de la Marne
Plantings of Meunier (a fruity character on clay marl, and sandy soils), and Chardonnay that can be blend into early-drinking wines. Frost-prone valley, so ideal for Meunier (later budding and early ripening).
Overview of Côte des Blancs
Devoted to the cultivation of white grapes (95% Chardonnay). It has the purest form of chalk (excellent balance between water retention and drainage). Grand Cru villages of Cramant, Avize, Oger, and Le Mesnil-sur-Oger. Wines of great intensity and longevity (somewhat austere in youth).
Overview of Côte de Sézanne
Continuation of the Côte des Blancs, mostly clay and clay/silt soils and some pockets of chalk. Mainly Chardonnay on warmer south-east facing slopes (fruitier and riper grapes). Lower quality than the Montagne de Reims, the Vallée de la Marne, the Côte des Blancs.
Overview of Côte des Bar
25% Pinot Noir, Kimmeridgian calcareous marls (like Chablis and Sancerre) with stony limestone elements for the soils, steep slopes help the drainage. A lack of Pinot Noir in the other sub-regions, so Merchants from the north of Champagne buy it here.
Grape varieties in Champagne
Pinot Noir, Meunier, Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Arbanne, Petit Meslier, and Fromenteau.
Distribution of main grape varieties in Champagne
35,000 ha: 38% Pinot Noir (Montagne de Reims and Côte des Bar), 31% Meunier (Vallée de la Marne), and 30% Chardonnay (Côte des Blancs and Côte de Sézanne). They represent 99% of the vineyards.
Main characteristics of Meunier
Mutation of Pinot that has white hairs on its leaves giving it a floury appearance. Early budding variety, but later than Pinot Noir (less prone to spring frost or coloure). It’s good on heavier soils (more clay). It ripens earlier than Pinot Noir, sensitive to botrytis infection. It produces fruity wines, so contributes softness to the Champagne blend. Generally, not used for long ageing (exceptions for Krug and Egly-Ouriet).
Regulations for planting in Champagne
A maximum inter-row spacing (between the rows) of 1.5 m, an intra-row spacing (between individual vines) of 0.9-1.5 m, so a total spacing (inter- and intra-row) of no more than 2.5 m. Average planting density of around 8000 vines per ha.
Main training systems in Champagne
- Taille Chablis;
- Cordon du Royat;
- Guyot;
- Vallée de la Marne.
Taille Chablis
The best system for Chardonnay. It usually has 3-4 cordons (max 5). At the end of each cordon is a spur with up to 5 buds. It’s a form of spur pruning, a large proportion of permanent wood that can protect against frost. Spurs trained to a maximum of 0.6 m above the ground (solar energy reflected from the soil).
Cordon du Royat
It’s used for Pinot Noir and Meunier in Champagne. Single cordon that is spur-pruned and the shoots are vertically positioned.
Vallée de la Marne (training system)
Similar to Guyot, but with a higher number of buds.
Hazards, pests, and diseases in Champagne
- Occasional severe winter frost (can kill vines or part of them).
- Spring frosts destroy new buds and reduce yields.
- Disruption to flowering and fruit set due to cold and rainy weather in June (can reduce also yields).
- Downy mildew (can reduce crop levels).
- Violent storms and hails in summer.
- Hot and humid weather in summer (botrytis).
- Downy and powdery mildew, and the dagger nematodes (fanleaf virus).
Practices of sustainable viticulture in Champagne
It’s one of the first regions where sustainable viticulture has been promoted at a regional level (by CIVC).
Reduction of the use of pesticides (sexual confusion) and implementation of soil protection methods (management of groundwater of slopes and cover cropping).
Practices also for the wineries (water management and waste recycling). In 2010, CIVC introduced a lighter bottle for NV cuvées (60g) to contrast CO2 output.
The role of CIVC during the harvest
CIVC is responsible for setting harvest dates and yields each year. It takes grape samples from 450 control plots from the time of véraison, and measures the rate of colour change, the average weight, the sugar concentration and acidity and the incidence of botrytis. Producers can start picking grapes earlier by derogation from INAO (Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité).
Duration of harvest in Champagne
Around three weeks.
Cuvée (pressing for Champagne grapes)
The cuvée (the first 2,050 L) is made up of free run juice and the first pressing. It’s rich in acids and produces wines with great finesse and long ageing potential.
Taille
The taille (500 L) is the second part. It has lower acidity but is richer in colouring pigments and phenolics. Useful to produce wines more expressive in youth but don’t have the same ageing potential. Usually used for NV.
Négociant Manipulant
Who buys grapes, must or wine to make Champagne on their own premises and market it under their own label. All the big Champagne houses belong here
Récoltant Manipulant
Who makes and markets their own label from grapes exclusively sourced from their own vineyards and processed on their own premises.
Coopérative de manipulation
A wine cooperative that markets Champagne under its own label from members’ grapes.
Echelle des crus
A system to establish the prices to be paid for the grapes, created in the early 20th century.
100% for the 17 Grand Cru villages, 90-99% for the 44 Premier Cru villages, 80-89% for the other villages. Prices were fixed by CIVC, but the system ended under pressure from the EU. Prices today are determined by the market with the biggest buyer of all (Moët & Chandon).
Main export markets of Champagne
UK, USA, Japan, Germany, and Belgium.
The average price for Champagne grapes
€ 6.10/kg, 1.2 kg to produce 0.75 L
Partition of Champagne price
50% grapes cost;
30% total production costs;
20% commercialisation.
Crémant
It’s used to denote some regional French traditional method sparkling wines made outside of Champagne region.
The main largest Crémant appellations
Alsace, Bourgogne, and Loire.
Common specifications for Crémant wines
- Whole-bunch pressing.
- Maximum yield at pressing of 100 L per 150 kg of grapes.
- At least 9 months on the lees.
- At least 12 months between tirage and release (ageing is included).
- Maximum 13% abv in the final wine.
- At least 4 atm pressure.
The typical style for Crémant d’Alsace
Pinot Blanc-based, medium intensity, ripe, apple and pear fruit, medium(+) to high acidity and light to medium body. Long ageing on the lees gives medium intensity biscuit, autolytic notes. Usually Brut style.
Climate in Alsace
Sunny, semi-continental, dry and hot during the growing season, hot days and cool nights. Spring frost.
Grape varieties for Crémant d’Alsace
Pinot Blanc and Auxerrois (20%), Chardonnay (1%), Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Pinot Noir.
Maximum yield is 80 hL/ha.
Declaration of Crémant production in July from particular vineyards.
A common practice of winemaking for Crémant d’Alsace
Must chaptalisation.
Crémant d’Alsace Emotion
Launched in 2012 to create a top-quality category, at least 75% Pinot Blanc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir (separately or together), at least 24 months on the lees.
The typical style for Crémant de Bourgogne
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, with up to 20% of Gamay, Brut style with medium(+) acidity, lightly fruity to richly toasty. Medium intensity fruit ranges from green apple and lemon (cooler sites) to apricot (warmer areas). Also Blanc de Blancs, Blanc de Noirs, and Rosé.
Climate in Burgundy
- The northern areas have a cool climate, no hot and dry summer, south or south-east aspect. Wines with high acidity and light body.
- The central area has the most continental climate, with low winter temperatures and sunny and dry summers. Wines with just-ripe fruit and high acidity.
- The southern area has a Mediterranean influence, with higher summer temperatures. Wines with riper fruit character and lower acidity. Risk of summer storms.
- Common hazards of hail, spring frost, fungal diseases, and esca.
The main grape sources for Crémant de Bourgogne
Mâconnais (for Chardonnay), Côte Chalonnaise (around Rully), Beaujolais, areas around Chablis in the Yonne department and Châtillon-sur-Seine, Hautes Côtes de Beaune and Hautes Côtes de Nuits, flatland vineyards on the Côte d’Or.
Grape varieties for Crémant de Bourgogne
Gamay, Pinot Gris, Pinot Noir, Aligoté, Chardonnay, Melon, and Pinot Blanc.
Maximum yield is 80-90 hL/ha.
Declaration of Crémant production before the end of March.
Crémant de Bourgogne Blanc
The blend must be at least 30% Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, and Pinot Gris (separately or together), 20% maximum of Gamay.
Crémant de Bourgogne Blanc de Blancs
Can be made from any white grape varieties.
Crémant de Bourgogne Blanc de Noirs
Only from Pinot Noir.
Crémant de Bourgogne Rosé
Manly from Pinot Noir, but a small amount of Gamay is allowed to help colour.
Crémant de Bourgogne Eminent
An additional lees-ageing requirement of 24 months minimum.
Crémant de Bourgogne Grand Eminent
White wines only from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, rosé only max 20% of Gamay, vintage is optional, at least 36 months on the lees and 3 months in the bottle before release, only Brut designation.
The typical style for Crémant de Loire
90% is white and Brut. Chenin Blanc-dominant wines have medium intensity green apple and citrus flavours with light toasty autolytic notes. Honeyed aromas for wines with 2/3 years of ageing. High acidity. Also Demi-Sec style.