FORTIFIED WINES 💪🏼 Flashcards
Key choices affecting style, quality and price in fortified wines
- Grape variety
- Vineyard site
- Timing of harvest
- Skin contact and extraction
- Timing of fortification
- The fortifying spirit
- Maturation
- Blending
- Finishing
Components of fortified wine influenced by grape variety
- Aromas and flavours
- Acidity
- Colour
- Tannins
How grape variety influences aromas and flavours of fortified wine
It can either provide its own aroma and flavour characters to the wine (Muscat in VDNs w/ protective winemaking and Rutherglen Muscat w/ oxidative winemaking) or be simply a neutral base for the flavours of maturation (Sherry Palomino).
How grape variety influences acidity of fortified wine
Madeira (Sercial and Verdelho grapes) has naturally high levels of acidity. Some Sherries (Palomino grape) can give the same sensation although the acidity is low, due to high alcohol and bone-dry palate.
How grape variety influences colour of fortified wine
Tawny Port is made from grapes with light colour instead of Vintage Port (deep colour, more phenolic compounds because of the long ageing). Touriga Nacional and Sousão improve the colour.
How grape variety influences tannins of fortified wine
High levels of tannins are not required nor desirable in early-drinking styles (Ruby Port or Maury Grenat). Tannins in colour stability make medium(+) or high levels of tannins beneficial in long-aged wines. Tannins soften with age and become more integrated.
How vineyard site influences the style of fortified wine
The vineyards of the Douro are scored according to factors such as location, aspect, and altitude. This score determines how much Port wine can be produced from that plot. Vintage Ports from the best plots.
Muscat de Frontignan in the Languedoc produces slightly fuller wines with riper flavours from low altitude vineyards, than the high-altitude sites of Muscat de St-Jean-de-Minervois.
Factors that determine the time of harvest for fortified wines
1) No botrytis
Botrytis (noble rot) is not desirable, so harvest before the risk of rain, increased humidity.
2) Alcohol
Some styles require the grapes at just beyond the minimum level of potential alcohol required by law. No unripe fruit flavours. Sherry made from Palomino, the potential alcohol and health of the grapes are much more important for determining the harvesting date than the range of flavours.
3) Sugars
Rutherglen Muscat, Pedro Ximénez (PX), and Moscatel Sherry require high levels of sugars, so the grapes are left on the vine longer.
How skin contact and extraction influence the style of fortified wine
The extraction of colour, tannins and flavours is a key process for red fortified wines. These wines are often sweet and made by adding the fortifying alcohol midway through the fermentation process, so usually period of maceration to as little as 2-3 days. Extraction techniques need to be as effective as possible especially for wines that are to undergo long ageing (high concentrations of colour, tannin and flavour). The Port industry have developed specialist equipment to permit maximum extraction whilst remaining gentle. Less extraction for basic Tawny and Rosé Ports (paler appearance).
Madeira, Muscat based VDNs and White Port, white grapes can macerate for a limited time to increase body, texture and extract additional flavours.
No skin contact for Sherry Fino and Manzanilla because the phenolic compounds extracted can restrict the growth of flor yeast.
How timing of fortification influences the style of fortified wine
Dry fortified wines are fortified once fermentation is complete.
The majority of sweet fortified wines are fortified midway through fermentation, stopping the fermentation by raising the overall alcohol level above that at which yeast can operate and leaving residual sugar (the greater the amount of sugar, the earlier the fortification).
Sherry Pale Cream, Medium and Cream are made by fermenting the wine to dryness and then adding a sweetening component. Sherry Cream is a dry Oloroso often blended with PX, combining the characteristics of aged, dry Palomino with raisined PX.
How fortifying spirit influences the style of fortified wine
The majority are fortified with 95-96% abv grape spirit. These spirits don’t mask the characteristics of the wine, because the high alcohol content is neutral in aroma and flavour. The high level of alcohol minimises the volume of spirit needed to bring the fortified wine to the required alcoholic strength (15-22% abv).
Port must be fortified with a grape spirit of 77% abv (+/- 0.5%). Spirit is more characterful and contributes more of its own aroma and flavour characteristics to the blend. Significant volume is required. Some producers choose to use more aromatic styles of spirits, especially in Red Ports. For Rosé Ports is better a relatively subtle spirit (delicate style of wine).
The strength and volume of fortifying spirit added influences the final alcohol level of the wine.
The abv of the grape spirit used for the majority of fortified wines
95-96%
The abv of the grape spirit used for Port wine
77% (+/- 0.5%)
How maturation influences the style of fortified wine
It’s a defining stage in the production of many fortified wines.
- Some fortified wines (some VDNs, Ruby and Rosé Ports, some White Ports) are released relatively early from the winery, early-drinking style. Usually, stored in stainless steel or concrete and are protected from oxygen. Youthful and primary flavours.
- Other wines (Vintage and some LBV Ports) are released after a short period of ageing with the intention that they will improve in the bottle. Stored for a few years in large oak vessels before bottling. Designated to age in the bottle so very concentrated with high levels of tannins on release. After bottle ageing, dried fruit and soft and integrated tannins.
- Others (premium Tawny Ports, Madeiras, Rutherglen Muscat and some styles of VDNs and Sherries) are aged oxidatively. Usually, maturation in small wooden vessels (encouraging oxygen exposure and increasing the rates of evaporation). A number of these wines are also matured in warm or heated conditions (boost oxidation, evaporation and maturation). Aromas of nuts, caramel, and dried fruits.
- Another technique is biological ageing (Fino and Manzanilla Sherries). Veil of flor yeast protects the wine from oxidation while lowering levels of glycerol and contributing aromas of hay, apple skin, bread dough and nuts.
Examples of fortified wines which are released early from the winery
Some VDNs, Ruby and Rosé Ports, some White Ports.
Examples of fortified wines which are released after short ageing from the winery
Vintage and some LBV Ports.
Examples of fortified wines which are released after oxidative ageing from the winery
Premium Tawny Ports, Madeiras, Rutherglen Muscat and some styles of VDNs and Sherries.
Examples of fortified wines which are released after biological ageing from the winery
Fino and Manzanilla Sherries.
Key aims of blending in fortified wines
- Balance
- Consistency
- Style
- Complexity
- Volume
- Price
How blending influences the balance of fortified wine
High alcohol so integration with other components; wines are generally aged for long periods of time (more concentration, less primary fruit flavours) and will be blended with younger wines before bottling, to give a degree of freshness to the wine by balancing out the developed aromas and flavours (Sherry and Rutherglen Muscat).
How blending influences the consistency of fortified wine
As many wines are non-vintage, so consistency every year; in some regions, wines from each vintage are matured individually (static maturation), then they’re blended; solera system (Sherry and modified version for Rutherglen Muscat) to ensure consistency amongst the vessels of a particular age.
How blending influences the style of fortified wine
Blending influences the style of wine, for example, the choice of grape varieties used in Port production will impact the colour, tannin and flavour concentration. This influences the wine’s ability to age or not. In some styles of Sherry, a sweetening component (PX) is added to the final wine to create a sweet style of wine; some brands use blending to create a certain “house style”.
How blending influences the complexity of fortified wine
Wines of different ages or wines that have been treated differently in the winery can be blended to create a greater range of flavours.
How blending influences the volume of fortified wine
In most regions, vineyards are small so it’s necessary to blend from different producers to have a sufficient volume for sales; others use small vessels for maturation and blend is usually needed before bottling to make up a sufficient volume of consistent wine.
How blending influences the price of fortified wine
A producer may blend different quality wines together or wines of different ages to achieve a wine at the desired price point.
Static maturation - definition
When the wines of different vintages mature separately.
How finishing options influence the style of fortified wine
Stabilising, fining, and filtration before bottling to have a clean and clear product for the consumer.
Some styles of Port (Vintage, Single Quinta, Crusted and some LBVs) are not filtrated so they continue to develop in bottle. They present sediments when being poured.
Some styles of Sherry termed “en rama” either undergo a light fining and filtration or not be fined or filtered at all (more pronounced and complex than their fined and filtered counterparts).
Examples of fortified wines which are not filtrated
Some styles of Port: Vintage, Single Quinta, Crusted and some LBVs.
En Rama
No legal definition, wines that have been finished and packaged in a way to be the best representation of the wine straight from the barrel. Usually no fining and filtration (a little for exports). It’s all for the dry Sherries (Fino En Rama is the most common). More intense and complex wines, so higher prices.
Rancio
Tasting term used to describe a collection of aromas and flavours (leather, wood varnish and strong coffee) that are found in some styles of wine. Compounds extracted from wooden vessels, oxygen and time all play a role.
Maderisation
The process whereby the wine is heated and oxidised. The name becomes from the process of maturation that is used and has been for a number of centuries, for the wines of Madeira.
Alcohol scale for SAT in fortified wines
Low – 15-16.4% abv
Medium – 16.5-18.4% abv
High – at least 18.5% abv
Important facts in the history of Sherry
The area around the city of Jerez (Andalusia) has a long history of growing grapes and producing wines, ever since the Phoenicians. During the period of Moorish rule (8th-13th centuries), wine consumption was prohibited, but wine production continued. After Jerez came under Christian rule (13th century) both domestic consumption and exports grew rapidly as English, Irish and Flemish traders. Benefits from free trade agreements with France and England. Cristoforo Colombo contributed also to the exports of Sherry towards America.
Other countries began to produce their own, often poor-quality, “Sherries” after seeing the popularity of Sherry in the late 19th and early 20th. So, in 1933, Spain’s first wine-related Regulatory Council, the Consejo Regulador, was formed, setting regulations to control the production and trading of Sherry wines.
Sherry sales fell during the Second World War. They recovered in the decades following until their peak in the 1970s (1.5 million hL in 1979). After this, fall in demand because younger consumers wanted different styles, so a surplus of Sherry (cheap and low-quality).
Role of Ruiz Mateos S.A. in the history of Sherry
Also known as Rumasa, it was one business that played a key part in the Sherry fluctuations. It started as an almacenista, before starting to ship its own Sherry in 1950. Supply of Harveys of Bristol and major supplier for their Bristol Cream. Built a business empire, taking Sherry bodegas and also other businesses (hotels, banks, etc.). Domination of the Sherry industry in the late 1970s, drove down the prices, so negatively impact. In 1983, the government claimed unpaid taxes by it. Its Sherry bodegas were sold causing a substantial rise in unemployment and social unrest. Also, other bodegas closed because they were unable to sustain themselves (poor-quality wines).
Climate of the area of production for Sherry wines
Andalusia (southern Spain) at low latitude (36°N) and with low altitude (0-90 m above sea level), with influences from the Atlantic Ocean. Jerez has a hot Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, relatively rainy winters. Poniente wind (from the west) provides cooling and humid influence in the summer. Levante wind (from the south-east) has a hot and dry flow and it can make the climate arider. This can cause grapes to transpire more quickly, concentrating the sugars. Too much sugar can be negative (difficult to ferment, flor development). High number of cloud-free days, so high number of sunlight hours (fully ripening but also sunburn if no sufficient shading).
Main areas of production for Sherry wines
The grapes for Sherry must come from the Zona de Producción or Marco de Jerez (7,000 ha). Grapes grown in this zone can be used for DO Jerez-Xérès-Sherry or DO Manzanilla – Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Pedro Ximénez (PX) can be grown around Montilla but matured in the Zona de Crianza and still be labelled as DO Jerez-Xérès-Sherry.
The Zona de Producción is split into two parts: Jerez Superior (90%, better vineyard sites, albariza soil) and Jerez Zona.
Pago
Small and delimited area into the vineyard able to give wines with unique characteristics thanks to several factors (aspect, soil, microclimate).
Key components of Andalusia soil
Albariza, barros, arenas.
Albariza
The main type of soil in Andalusia, a mixture of limestone, silica, and clay. It retains and gradually releases water from winter rainfall. The ability of the albariza to retain water means that higher planting densities and yields are possible in Jerez. It reduces also evaporation from the soil surface by forming a crust when dry. Albariza has a light colour, so there is the reflection of the sun lights on the vine (growing improving).
Barros
Type of soil in Andalusia with greater clay content.
Arenas
Sandy soil in Andalusia.
Main grape varieties for the Sherry production
Palomino, Moscatel (Muscat of Alexandria), Pedro Ximénez (PX).
Palomino
Also known as Palomino Fino and Listán. 99% of the Sherry production, used in all dry and sweetened styles of Sherry. Mid to late-ripening, well-suited to dry, sunny weather, capable to produce large yields. It loses acidity quickly when it nears maturity. Neutral variety (not so much influence to primary aromas of Sherry).
Moscatel
Also known as Muscat of Alexandria. < 1% of the Sherry production, it’s called Moscatel de Chipiona after the coastal town of Chipiona (mainly grown on arenas soil). Late ripening and well adapted to heat and drought. Aromatic grape (grape, blossom). Used for sweet fortified.
Pedro Ximénez
Also known as PX. < 1% of the Sherry production, also used for sweet fortified wines of the same name or as a sweetening agent. Small, thin-skinned, it accumulates high levels of sugar. Traditionally dried in the sun to further concentrate sugars. Neutral variety (flavours come from the drying and maturing processes). It can be grown in the Montilla district (Cordoba) and shipped into the Zona de Producción either as fresh or raisined grapes or as a young wine.
Main training systems for Sherry vineyards
Process of being transformed, mainly to accommodate mechanisation (pruning, harvesting and soil management).
Replacement cane pruning (vara y pulgar) is the main training system. Now cordon trained (single or double) and spur pruned is increasing to allow mechanisation. VSP trellising ensures the canopy remains open and arranged for easy mechanisation, some shading to prevent sunburn. Within-row spacing is just over 1 m, between-row spacing is wide enough to allow tractors to pass.
Vara y pulgar
Replacement cane pruning in the Sherry region.
The maximum yields for Sherry vineyards
80 hL/ha (usually closer to 60-70 hL/ha).
Aserpia
The system used to work the soil after harvest, creating a series of troughs or gullies to catch the winter rains. Otherwise, rainwater would flow down (vineyards on gentle slopes, 10-15%) because albariza is a permeating soil. Now it’s done mechanically.
The most widely used rootstocks for Sherry vineyards
333EM, 41-B, and 13-5 EVEX (hybrids of V. Vinifera and V. Berlandieri).
13-5 EVEX
One of the most used rootstocks for Sherry vineyards. It was developed by the local viticultural research station, the most successful to date. It’s tolerant of limestone soils and drought. It produces good yields.
Main climate diseases in the Sherry region
A little disease in the dry growing season. Mildew can be a problem in the spring due to warm humid weather after any rain. No frost (hot climate and Atlantic influence). European grapevine moth is a problem and often managed using pheromone traps.
Characteristics of Sherry harvest
Harvest begins in the first week of August (inland vineyards) and finishes in the second week of September (coastal sites). It tends to be as early as possible to avoid the risk of autumn rain. The grapes have 12% potential alcohol, total acidity around 5 g/L and a pH of 3.3-3.5. Palomino loses acidity quickly in the final stages of ripening, so acidification when levels are below 5 g/L.
The PX and Moscatel grapes for naturally sweet wines are harvested slightly later, in order to have a higher sugar concentration.
60% of the total grape volume is harvested by machine mostly at night or in the early hours of the morning (fewer chances of oxidation and microbial spoilage).
Primera yema
Free run juice and the lightest pressings for Sherry wines (typically 60-75% of the juice yield). It is designated for biologically aged wines, though it can be used for oxidatively aged wines. It is used for biologically aged wines as skin contact is not desirable as phenolic compounds can restrict the growth of flor yeast.
The maximum permitted juice yield for Sherry
70 L/100kg of grapes.
The reason why must clarification before fermentation is important in the Sherry production
Albariza soil is dusty.
Ways for must clarification during the production of Sherry
Cold settling, centrifugation or flotation.
Types of yeasts, temperature range, and vessels for the fermentation in the Sherry production
Separately fermentations for the musts that come from different areas. Most producers use cultured yeasts and ferment at around 22-26°C (beneficial for a reliable fermentation to dryness, no need to retain primary fruity aromas). Stainless steel vessels. A smaller number of producers uses barrel for fermentation (fuller body).
Times for fermentation in the Sherry production
The vast majority of the sugar is fermented within the first seven days. Then, a slow phase of fermentation of the last sugar (2 weeks).
How to prevent malo during the Sherry production and the reason
No malo by chilling the must (acidity is low and buttery flavours are not wanted). SO2 to prevent malo has a negative impact on flor development.
What happens during the First Classification of Sherry
Tasting and analysis of each batch of base wine after fermentation, it decides whether the batch will be used for biological ageing (lighter-bodied, less intensely flavoured wines) or oxidative ageing (fuller bodied, more intense wines).
Abvs of fortification for Sherry
Wines for biological ageing will be fortified to 15-15.5% abv (ideal condition for flor). Wines for oxidative ageing will be fortified to 17% abv.
Abv of fortifying spirit for Sherry
95% abv (no aromas and flavours wanted)
Sobretablas
Stage after fortification in which the wines are stored (remain in tanks or transferred to wooden barrels) before joining the solera system. This stage precedes the Second Classification.
What happens during the Second Classification of Sherry
After some months from the First Classification, the wines marked as biological ageing will be tasted and analysed in the Second Classification:
- Fino or Manzanilla, full layer of flor and have remained fresh;
- Amontillado, slightly less delicate;
- Palo Cortado, full-bodied and intensely flavoured.
Fermentation process for Sherry wines
Grapes are pressed on arrival and skin contact avoided.
For must destined for biological ageing, phenolics should be low so free-run juice of the lightest pressings are used. High levels of phenolics can impact the growth of the flor.
For oxidative styles of Sherry, the later press fractions can be used, as high levels of phenolics are not an issue in this wine style.
Both styles clarify the must prior to fermentation. Inoculation is usually by the addition of cultured yeast and fermentation is carried out between 22-26ºC in stainless steel tanks. Wines are fermented to dryness and malolactic conversion is avoided due to the naturally low acidity already present and the need to produce a neutral style of wine.
Post-fermentation process for Sherry wines
Post-fermentation wines are tasted and analysed (First Classification) to determine if they will be destined for biological ageing (lighter body with light flavour intensity) or oxidative ageing (fuller body and more intense flavours).
Biological destined wines will be fortified to 15% abv and oxidative destined wines will be fortified to 17% abv which inhibits the formation of flor yeast. The fortifying spirit is 95% abv.
Sobretablas stage after fortification. Then, the wines marked as biological ageing will be tasted and analysed in the Second Classification (Fino/Manzanilla, Amontillado, Palo Cortado).
In the end, solera system.
Municipalities of the Zona de Crianza
Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa Maria and Sanlúcar de Barrameda.
Area of maturation for DO Jerez-Xérès-Sherry
For the wines labelled DO Jerez-Xérès-Sherry can be in the Zona de Crianza (Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa Maria and Sanlúcar de Barrameda). Moscatel can be also matured in the municipalities of Chipiona and Chiclana de Frontera.
Area of maturation for DO Manzanilla – Sanlúcar de Barrameda
Sanlúcar de Barrameda.
Types of vessels used during the Sherry maturation
Old wooden vessels are used. Different sizes, most common is 600 L butt. American oak (historical reasons and cheaper) but also French. They’re very old, so no contribution in oak flavours.
Bodegas key points for the Sherry maturation
Bodegas are specifically designed for optimum conditions of maturation without air conditioning systems. Thick walls (constant temperature), tall buildings with high ceilings (warm air rises away from the rows of butts), small windows near the roof (cool winds from the Atlantic to lower temperatures and raise humidity levels) with thin blinds (sunlight diffusion and prevention of dust and insect), earth floor (wetted during summer for lower temperatures and more humidity).
Fluctuations between summer and winter, so flor can often not be maintained.
The Solera System - definition
Most Sherry is a non-vintage product, the solera system is a method of fractional blending that is used to maintain consistency and quality every year.
Criadera
It’s the section of barrels of wines (same vintage) that makes up the solera system.
Solera
It’s the criadera of the oldest wine into the Solera System.
The Solera System - process
- up to 40% is taken from each barrel in the solera;
- the same proportion from the barrels in the 1st criadera, blended in a tank (consistency) and used to top up the barrels in the solera;
- the same process between 2nd criadera with 1st criadera, and so on;
- the youngest criadera is topped up with the sobretablas.
How to realise an inexpensive Fino Sherry
Inexpensive Fino with 4th and 5th criaderas and a small proportion of 1st criadera (complexity).
How to realise a mid-priced or premium Fino Sherry
Mid-priced or premium Fino with a great proportion of solera, 1st criadera (complexity) and 4th/5th criaderas (freshness).
Example of a blend from different Solera systems during the Sherry production
The wines for Amontillado may undergo 5 years in a Fino system and then 8 years in an Amontillado system.
The Solera System - rules
No more than 40% of the wine from one solera system can be removed for blending and bottling each calendar year (the solera system always retains most of its wine). Any wine that is released and bottled for sale must be a minimum of two years old.
Flor - definition
Flor is comprised of four strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (found on the skins of the grapes from the Jerez region and also in the bodegas). It’s typically used in biological ageing for Sherry production.
Flor - ideal conditions for the development
Max 15.5% abv (flor yeast consume alcohol, but struggle to survive above 16% abv), no SO2 adding (it inhibits the development of flor), Sherry butts are left 85-90% full (flor needs oxygen), the temperature of the warehouse between 16-20°C and humidity above 65%.
Flor - influence on the wine
Flor protects wine from oxidation (pale lemon colour) and it consumes alcohol in the wine releasing acetaldehyde (apple aroma like apple skin or bruised apple, hay and/or chamomile). It consumes also glycerol, so light body (the very dry nature). It also reduces the levels of acetic acid.
The nature of the flor changes in different areas, so different results in the wines.
Overtime in the barrel, the flor yeast reproduces and dies (fall to the bottom). It starts autolysis so savouring, nutty flavours, enhancing the texture of the wine.
Nutrients for flor
Alcohol, glycerol, and acetic acid.
The reasons why biological ageing uses the solera system
- to maintain style and quality;
- to refresh the nutrient levels for flor in older wines (thick layer of flor alive).
The reasons why bodegas remove small proportions of wine during biological ageing
- to refresh the nutrient levels for flor in older wines (thick layer of flor alive);
- to bottle a fresh wine, ready to the market (not suitable for bottle ageing).
Biological ageing - definition
Maturing the wine under a layer of flor.
The influence of oxidative ageing on the wine
The colour change from lemon to gold, amber and then brown. Levels of alcohol increase slightly with ageing as, in the environment of the bodega, water is generally lost from the barrel at a quicker rate than ethanol (3-5% of volume per year). So other components become more concentrated. Glycerol levels rise (fuller and rounder body), aromas and flavours on tertiary and oxidative characteristics such as caramel and nuts. Acetaldehyde decreases slightly but levels of acetic acid and ethyl acetate increase slightly.
Operations to do before bottling Sherry
- Tartrate stabilisation, fining and filtration prior to bottling.
- Filtration is necessary for biologically aged Sherry to remove flor yeast (it can start to develop once the bottle is opened).
- Cork, cork stoppers or screw cap. Packaged and sealed within the three Sherry towns.
Dry Sherries
Fino and Manzanilla, Manzanilla Pasada, Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso.
Residual sugar < 5 g/L.
Fino and Manzanilla
Only biological ageing. Pale lemon colour. Dry, light to medium bodied, with low acidity and low alcohol of 15-15.5% abv. Their aromas and flavours depend on the length of time spent in the solera but may include aromas associated with acetaldehyde rather than primary fruit, bread dough and almonds. From good to outstanding quality. Prices are inexpensive to premium or even super-premium.
Wines that are matured in the coastal municipality of Sanlúcar de Barrameda qualify as Manzanilla de Sanlúcar de Barrameda. They have a thicker layer of flor (more oxygen protection) than those from Jerez, because of maritime climate, no seasonal change and high humidity. The greater protection from oxygen and lower levels of acetaldehyde (different strains in Jerez) mean that Manzanillas often taste lighter and fresher than Finos. So, in the Manzanilla solera system is needed the replenishing with young wines more frequently to support flor.
Manzanilla Pasada
Manzanilla is subjected to a short period of oxidative ageing. The flor may be left to die naturally by not refreshing the barrels with new wine for around a year. Then, the wine enters into a Manzanilla Pasada solera system. Two years older than Manzanilla, starts to become like Amontillado.
Amontillado
It must have the attributes from both biological and oxidative ageing. It starts in a Fino solera system, refortification to 17% abv (killing the flor), then the Amontillado solera system. Inexpensive Amontillados are likely to use young biologically aged wines (from youngest criaderas). More expensive wines will be matured for longer and hence be more complex. Good to outstanding quality, mid-priced to premium or even super-premium.
Palo Cortado
Aromas like Amontillado and palate like Oloroso. Sugar level < 5 g/L and alcohol between 17-22% abv. No stipulations on winemaking and maturation practices. Fino solera system and then Palo Cortado solera system. It’s a Fino wine during the Second Classification, but less delicate, more complexity and less able to support a thick layer of flor (it could oxidize). Less biological ageing than an Amontillado (less prominent the acetaldehyde aromas). Higher levels of glycerol, components are more concentrated, so Palo Cortado has a slightly fuller, rounder body than Amontillado. Usually premium prices (some mid-priced), very good to outstanding quality.
Oloroso
Oxidative ageing. After fermentation, fortification to 17% abv. Brown colour. Tertiary, oxidative aromas of toffee and walnut. Some inexpensive, acceptable to good quality are early released from the solera system. Also well-matured Oloroso with good to outstanding quality and premium prices.
Process of making Naturally Sweet Sherries
- Grapes are left on the vine longer to concentrate the sugars.
- After harvest, they are dried in the sun for 2-3 weeks which results in the evaporation of water content from the grapes, concentrating the sugars further and aromas of dried fruit (raisin) developing.
- Fermentation will stop naturally at about 4-6% abv.
- Wines are fortified to 15-16% abv.
- Wines are generally matured oxidatively in a solera system which again concentrates the sugars and aromas.
Naturally Sweet Sherry
PX and Moscatel.
PX (Naturally Sweet Sherry)
Single varietal PX has a minimum residual sugar level of 212 g/L, it’s common that reaches 450-550 g/L. Full bodied (like a syrup), low acidity, pronounced aromas of raisins, molasses and liquorice. Oxidative style. Inexpensive to premium price and good to outstanding quality. It can be used as blending components for Sweetened Sherries.
Moscatel (Naturally Sweet Sherry)
Single varietal Moscatel is less common. Minimum sugar level of 160 g/L, but usually 325-375 g/L. They can be in both a non-oxidative and oxidative (barrels ageing) style. Inexpensive to premium price and good to outstanding quality. It can be used as blending components for Sweetened Sherries.
Sweetened Sherries
Pale Cream, Medium and Cream.
Pale Cream Sherry
Biological ageing prior to sweetening. RCGM is generally used as the sweetening component (no adding of colour or flavours). Very subtle flor character. No very long ageing and the sweetening component dilutes some of the flor-derived characteristics. Medium-sweet to sweet. Most are inexpensive and acceptable to good quality.
Medium Sherry
It has both biological and oxidative ageing characteristics. Usually blended with PX for sweetening. Medium Sherries can range from off-dry to sweet. From inexpensive to premium price, acceptable to outstanding quality. Cheapest wines from young wines. Premium wines from a high proportion of well-matured Amontillado, Oloroso, and PX.
Cream Sherry
Only oxidative characteristics. Usually blended with PX for sweetening. It’s always sweet. From inexpensive to premium price, acceptable to outstanding quality. Cheapest wines from young wines. Premium wines from a high proportion of well-matured Amontillado, Oloroso, and PX.
Sherries with an indication of age
VOS and VORS, 12- and 15-year-old Sherry.
VOS and VORS
VOS (Vinum Optimum Signatum / Very Old Sherry) has an average age of 20 years or more. VORS (Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum / Very Old Rare Sherry) has an average age of 30 years or more. Every single batch has an assessment for typicity by a tasting panel and also sent for laboratory analysis to provide evidence of the age of the wine. Little astringent wines, producers can blend in a little sweet wine (PX), as long as it doesn’t mask the original dry wine. Only Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso, and PX. Very small quantities, very good or outstanding quality, premium and super-premium prices (rarity).
12- and 15-year-old Sherries
Slightly lower average age. Tasting and laboratory analysis on a yearly basis. Only Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso, and PX.
Sherry styles that can legally be bottled with an age statement on the label
Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso, and PX.
Categories of company in the Sherry business
- Bodegas de la Zona de Producción (Production Bodega);
- Bodegas de Crianza y Almacenado (Ageing and Storage Bodega);
- Bodegas de Crianza y Expedición (Ageing and Shipping Bodega).
Bodegas de la Zona de Producción (Production Bodega)
Usually large cooperatives, press grapes and ferment the must into base wine. Must be located in the Sherry production zone but not needed in the Zona de Crianza. They are often owned by a company within one of the other registers but can be independent and will sell the base wine to stockist bodegas. They may sell their own wines, but these cannot qualify for DO Jerez-Xérès-Sherry or DO Manzanilla - Sanlúcar de Barrameda.
Bodegas de Crianza y Almacenado (Ageing and Storage Bodega)
Also called almacenistas, mature wines. They must be located in the Zona de Crianza and tend to be relatively small in the amount of wine they mature. The wines must then be sold to Bodegas de Crianza y Expedición.
Bodegas de Crianza y Expedición (Ageing and Shipping Bodega)
Also called shippers, the only permitted to export or sell DO Jerez-Xérès-Sherry or DO Manzanilla – Sanlúcar de Barrameda wines to the market. They must be located in the Zona de Crianza. They are permitted to mature the wines that can come young from Bodegas de la Zona de Producción or mature from Bodegas de Crianza y Almacenado. The wines from almacenistas may be blended with the shipper’s own stocks to make up the volume or add complexity. The wines are sold under the shipper’s own brands.
Consejo Regulador
Founded in 1933.
- Maintains all the vineyard registers and sets parameters (max yield, min alcohol) for base wines.
- Oversees the rotation of stock in the bodegas and verifies the authenticity of aged-dated Sherries.
- Sets the regulations and legislation for labelling terms permitted for each style of Sherry (each style must conform to certain attributes, e.g. residual sugar, alcohol level, colour, winemaking process, maturation).
- Major promotional body (marketing), from events (International Sherry Week) to educational courses.
The main export markets for Sherry
UK, Holland, Germany, and USA.
Latitude of Andalusia
36°N
Altitude of vineyards in Andalusia
0-90 m above sea level
Alternative name for the Zona de Producción
Marco de Jerez
Characteristics of the Palomino grapes when picked
- 12% potential alcohol;
- 5 g/L acidity;
- 3.3-3.5 pH.
How the success of Port started
Its origins start from trade wars between England and France in the 17th century. The powerful red wines became popular in England. Brandy was added to stabilise the dry wines and make sure they arrived in England in good condition. The practice of fortifying the wine during the fermentation started when two British merchants visited the Abbot of Lamego and found high-quality sweet wines and shipped them to England.
Important facts of the Port history before the 19th century
Dry style was popular in England in the 17th century (trade wars with France). Then, fortification during the fermentation was discovered by two British merchants.
Famous Port shippers were established including Kopke, Warre, Croft, Quarles Harris and Taylor’s.
In 1703, Methuen Treaty established low rates of duty for Portuguese wines in England meant high production of poor quality. So, demarcation of the vineyards and regulations of the production by Marquês de Pombal in 1756. He created Real Companhia Velha to fix the prices and to have the exclusive right to supply the spirit used in fortification. Sales volumes and prices increased again.
Important facts of the Port history in the 19th century
In the 19th century, Peninsular War, the Portuguese Civil War, both mildew and phylloxera hit the Port business so small growers and producers sold their land. Shippers started their business taking advantage of the low prices.
Important facts of the Port history in the first part of the 20th century
In 1933, the creation of the Instituto do Vinho do Porto (IVP) to administrate and supervise the Port industry, and the Casa do Douro (1932), a secondary authority to supervise the growers within the Port demarcation. Vineyard parcels were classified from A to I for their suitability for producing Port and 5 grape varieties. IVP and Casa do Douro controlled also the purchase of the spirit (aguardente).
Important facts of the Port history in the second part of the 20th century
In the early 1980s, the World Bank Scheme offered low-interest loans to Douro growers who could plant or replant up to 10 ha (only for A and B vineyards grade). Vineyard research programme between local university and some major shippers (Cockburn’s, Ferreira and Ramos Pinto). Around 2,500 ha were planted on wider terraces (patamares).
Portugal entered in EU (1986) and producers searched aguardente on the open market (1991), so rise in quality.
In 1990, the Casa do Douro bought 40% of the shares of Royal Oporto, but the venture was not a success and a few years later it became bankrupt.
Important facts of the Port history in the 21st century
In 2003, was created Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e do Porto (IVDP) to supervise both Port and Douro producers.
In the first decades of the 21st century, improved version of patamares, new grapes are used in addition to the five prescribed varieties, alternative solutions to traditional foot treading.
Climate of the Port wine production area
Located in the northeast of Portugal. Warm continental climate. 40°C in summer, possibility of freezing temperatures in the winter. Distance from the Atlantic Ocean and shelter from the Serra do Marão give warmer and drier climate than Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia.
Dimensions of the Douro region
Area of 250,000 ha, 43,500 ha of vineyards (32,000 ha for DO Port).
Sub-regions and its characteristics of the Douro Valley
Three sub-regions: Baixo Corgo (the coolest and wettest, 900 mm of rainfall, producing fruits for many inexpensive Ruby and Tawny Ports), Cima Corgo (warmer and drier, 700 mm of rainfall, best producers, Age-Indicated Tawny Port and Vintage Ports) and Douro Superior (the hottest and driest, 450 mm of rainfall, drought, sparsely vineyards, some flatter lands so mechanisation).
Soil of the Douro Valley
Stony, shallow soils, free-draining and poor in nutrients. The underlying bedrock is schist (vertical layer so roots are able to penetrate deep). The boundary of the demarcated Port region mostly follows the outline of the schist. Irrigation only in exceptional circumstances.
Main vineyard layouts in the Douro Valley
Socalcos, Patamares, Vinha Ao Alto.
Socalcos
The traditional method, narrow terraces supported by walls of dry rock. Allow planting densities of around 6,000 vines per hectare. No mechanisation (no considered for new vineyards). Protected by UNESCO (cannot be converted to any other layouts). Low densities to allow the entry of small tractor.
Patamares
Terraces supported by a steep earth ramp. Small tractors are able to run up and down the slopes by the use of tracks. Cheaper to implement and maintain than socalcos. Erosion and the growth of weeds on the ramps can be a problem. Low planting densities (3,000-3,500 vines per hectare). Two types:
- large – two rows of vine on each terrace, original form (large and bulky bulldozers), efficient use of vineyard land, uneven ripeness can be an issue (exterior row gains more sun);
- narrow patamares that only support one row of vines – modern technology to create them (small bulldozers and laser), often tilted very slightly towards the slope and also from one side of the terrace to the other, so improving water absorption and drainage and reducing erosion, no problem with ripeness.
Vinha Ao Alto
Vines are planted in vertical rows up the slopes. The least expensive option to plant and maintain and allows for relatively high-density planting (5,000 vines per hectare). No mechanisation above 40% incline (patamares in this case). Water run-off and erosion can be significant problems. The use of this layout is very limited.
Main training systems in the Douro Valley
Cordon-trained and spur-pruned or head-trained and cane-pruned, VSP trellised (promoting sun exposure, ripening and mechanisation).
Main rootstocks in the Douro Valley
Rootstocks tolerant of drought (110R and 1103P).
The maximum yield for Port wine
Maximum yield of 55 hL/ha (it can be 30 hL/ha due to all the diseases).
Main viticultural hazards in the Douro Valley and their relative solution
Hazards of spring frosts (high altitude or cool years), wet weather from the west (disrupts flowering and fruit set), downy mildew and botrytis bunch rot (Baixo Corgo). They are combatted by canopy management and spraying with fungicides.
Nutrient management in the Douro Valley
Fertilisers may be used as necessary to improve nutrients in the soil, herbicides to control weeds that grow on the slopes of patamares (mower if there is free space). Cover crop on Vinha ao Alto to prevent erosion, improve soil structure and nutrition, and reduce the presence of weeds. Sustainable and organic techniques are increasing.
How the harvest takes place in the Douro Valley
Hand harvest, it can last several weeks due to different microclimates also. It’s becoming increasingly difficult to find harvesters. Machine harvester by Symington Family Estates (2015). From the Douro Superior to Baixo Corgo.
Prescribed varieties used for Port wine production
Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Barroca, Touriga Nacional and Tinto Cão.
Touriga Franca
Late ripening (warmest sites), tight bunches of thick-skinned grapes (resistant to fungal diseases). It can be vigorous. It contributes colour, tannin, and acidity as well as juicy red and black fruit flavours and floral aromas. The most grown variety.
Tinta Roriz
Called Tempranillo in Spain and Aragonez elsewhere in Portugal. Early ripening (cool sites), can suffer from water stress. It can lend body and deep colour. It’s capable of high yields (low concentration).
Tinta Barroca
Early ripening (cool sites), prone to heat damage and grape shrivelling. No floral aromas, but earthy. If not in cool sites, lack acidity and its colour tends to fade more quickly than wines from Touriga Nacional and Touriga Franca. It’s capable of high yields.
Touriga Nacional
Mid-ripening with thick-skinned grapes, deep colour, high tannins. It retains acidity well, concentrated flavours of black fruit and floral aromas. Long ageing potential, so ideal for premium wines. It can suffer from excessive vegetative vigour (summer pruning), coloure.
Tinta Amarela
Called Trincadeira elsewhere in Portugal. Tight bunches (prone to fungal diseases), full bodied wines with concentrated black fruits and spicy notes, approachable in youth but also capable of ageing.
Tinto Cão
Low yields, small thick-skinned grape (resistant to fungal diseases), late ripening, tolerant to heat. Concentrated wines, high acidity, long ageing potential.
Sousão
Thick-skinned grape, deep colour and high acidity.
White grapes used for Port wine production
Malvasia Fina, Moscatel Galego Branco.
Malvasia Fina
Boal in Madeira, neutral wines with medium acidity, full body and a slightly honeyed characteristic.
Moscatel Galego Branco
Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains, aromatic, used for unaged styles.
Extraction methods during the fermentation for Port wines
- Foot treading in lagares.
- Modern lagares.
- Pumping over.
- Stainless-steel pistons.
- Autovinifiers.
Foot treading in lagares - what it is, pros/cons
Lagares are shallow (80 cm deep) square tanks. Traditionally made from granite and extraction by foot treading. Still used for a small number of premium and super-premium Ports.
✅ Gentle pressing, effective extraction, produces the highest quality wines.
❌ Expensive, labour intensive (difficult to find workforce).
Modern lagares - what it is, pros/cons
Silicon feet, attached to a stainless-steel gantry, press the grapes against the lagar floor and subsequently punch down the cap.
✅ Same quality compared to foot treading. Reduced labour costs.
❌ The initial investment is expensive.
Pumping over - what it is, pros/cons
Same technique for non-fortified wines and gives Ports with deep colour and high concentration.
✅ Cheaper method of extraction.
❌ Not as effective as foot treading or modern lagares.
Stainless-steel pistons - what it is, pros/cons
Open stainless-steel vats with pistons that punch down the cap.
✅ It produces similar wines in quality to those that have been made by foot treading. Inexpensive due to automation, effective extraction, high quality wines produced.
❌ Pumping over may also be required to obtain even extraction.
Autovinifiers - what it is, pros/cons
Sealed concrete or stainless-steel tanks allow cap management without electricity. CO2 from the fermentation pushes the juice up through the pipes into a holding tank. When CO2 reaches a determined level, a valve is automatically released and the wine in the holding tank sprays over the cap. So pressure depends on the CO2 from fermentation. Ideal for light colour, body, flavours Tawny, White and Ruby Ports.
✅ No electricity needed, inexpensive.
❌ Only suitable for basic Port.
Types of vessels used during the fermentation for Port wines
Stainless steel tanks for fermentation (temperature control, easy to clean). Some producers use granite, concrete or old wooden vessels, usually for small-volume wines.
Fermentation temperatures for Port wines
Temperatures for red are 28-32°C, white at 17-22°C.
Aguardente
The spirit used to fortify the wine must, it comes from grapes or other grape-derived products and it must be of 77% abv (+/- 0.5%), so spirity aromas and significative influence on the wine (1 L of spirit for every 4 L of fermenting must). Alcoholic strength between 19-22% abv. Basic ruby, tawny, white and rosé Port that can be fortified to a minimum of 18% abv.
From 1967 to 1976, all producers had to buy their aguardente from the Casa do Douro. From 1976, the IVP tendered the contract for the spirit, same aguardente for all producers (low quality). Since 1991, producers can source and buy their own aguardente. The spirit used influences the price, some are more neutral and others are more aromatic.
Process of fortification during the Port wine production
Fermentation is stopped when the wine reaches 5-7% abv. The wine is drained from the skins before the aguardente is added (quick because must is continuing fermenting, modern lagares are designed to do this as quickly as possible).
The mass of grape skins left after draining will be pressed and much of this press wine will be blended into the fortified free run wine to provide greater colour and tannin (necessary for wines of long ageing).
Acidification is common, no malo (high alcohol).
First winter in the Douro. After fermentation, the wines are left to clarify before they’re racked off the gross lees. A rotatory vacuum filter is often used to extract the remaining wine from the lees. In spring, the wines may be shipped to Vila Nova de Gaia.
When blending during the Port wine production happens
Blending can happen at any point. Ports are generally blends of different vineyard parcels, grapes, and vintages. House style. Different vinifications.
Maturation for Port wine
The climate of Vila Nova de Gaia is better suited to the maturation of Port wines with strong Atlantic influence, but several producers are building well-insulated, humidity-controlled lodges in the vineyard area (more tourism in Vila Nova de Gaia).
Oak ageing usually, the size depends on the degree of oxidation. The largest (balseiros) can hold 1000 hL and are used to store wines and keep them fresh. Pipes, 600 L barrels are used for oxidation. No aromas of new oak (new barrels are used in the production of unfortified wines, then Port).
Racking is carried out during the maturation process to remove lees that gradually accumulates at the bottom of the vessel to avoid potential off-flavours. Control on racking frequency and the degree to which the vessels are topped up with wine.
Balseiros
The largest wooden vessels for the maturation of Port wine. They can hold 1000 hL and are used to store wines and keep them fresh.
Pipes
Barrels of 600 L used for the maturation of Port wine which requires gentle oxidation.
Basic Ruby Port
Medium body, medium tannin, often a mixture of red and black fruit flavours. Early drinking style, not suitable for ageing (it could be fruity but without much tannins). Produced by using protective winemaking techniques (primary fruit aromas) such as stainless steel or concrete tanks, bulk ageing for a maximum of 3 years. A blend of more years, same style every year. Acceptable to good quality and inexpensive to mid-priced. Cheap spirit. Simple fruit flavours and slightly harsh alcohol.
Basic Tawny Port
Some lightness and browning of colour are in common with other Tawny Ports. No long periods of oxidative ageing (no longer than Ruby Ports). Light extraction during fermentation to have a pale colour. The fermenting must may be drained early, concentrating the remaining wine which can be used to add more colour and flavour to Ruby Port.
Reserve Ruby and Tawny Ports
Higher quality wines than basic Ruby and Tawny. Minimum ageing in wood of 6 years for Reserve Tawny. No minimum ageing period for Reserve Ruby Ports, tasted and approved by IVDP. More concentrated and of a higher quality than Basic Ruby.
Tawny with an Indication of age
Ageing of long periods of time in wooden barrels (pipes of 620-640 L - control of oxygen exposure, tannins soften, alcohol becomes more integrated, primary aromas switch to tertiary aromas such as dried fruits or caramel and nuts, no flavours of oak because they’re old). No clarification and stabilisation (they happen naturally due to the long ageing), no filtration. An age of 10, 20, 30 or 40 years (average age of the wines). Tasted by a panel (IVDP). Long ageing, so barrels need racking and topping up (evaporation). Prices are rising while stocks are decreasing. Sub-category of very old (non-age indicated) aged Tawny at super premium prices (Taylor’s Scion is a tawny of more than 150 years old).
Colheita
Tawny Port from one vintage. Ageing in small barrels for a minimum of 7 years before bottling. On the label, the vintage of the wine and the year of bottling. The wine in barrel can be topped up with other wines or spirit to avoid ullage. They don’t tend to be as expensive as Vintage Ports (some exceptions with super premium prices).
Vintage Port
Wine from one “declared” vintage. Producers must register their intention to release a Vintage Port in the second year after harvest and the young wine is approved by an IVDP tasting panel. Only in the best vintages (the vast majority in 2011 and 2016, or mixed in 2015). Usually, grapes from old vines, high-quality plots (Quinta do Noval’s Nacional).
Touriga Franca and Touriga Nacional are usually key components in the blend (colour, tannin, flavour concentration). Wines that don’t become Vintage Port may become Single Quinta Ports, LBV, Crusted Port or a form of Tawny Port.
Maximum 3 years (usually 18-20 months) in large wooden vessels before bottle ageing. Small amount of oxygen, so colour stability. No fining or filtration.
Young Vintage Ports tend to be deep in colour and full bodied with high tannins and pronounced intensity of ripe black fruit and sometimes floral notes. As they age, they gradually develop flavours of dried fruit and the tannins and alcohol integrate. Very good to outstanding quality, premium to super premium prices. They tend to be highly profitable wines for the producer.
Single Quinta
When Vintage is not produced. Wine from one year, only from the grapes of one estate (quinta).
Crusted
Non-vintage Port that is aged in wood for up to two years before being bottled without fining or filtration (crust forms in the bottle). Bottling date on the label. It can be released at any time after bottling (after 3 years it can include the term “bottle matured” on the label). Similar in style to Vintage Port (ageing potential). Good to very good quality and mid-priced to premium.
Late Bottled Vintage (LBV)
Wines from one year and must be bottled between 4-6 years after harvest. Fruit of not same quality of Vintage Port. Ready to drink after bottling. Storing in large old wooden vessels or stainless-steel vats to avoid oxidation. Some are filtered on bottling. Good to very good quality, mid-priced. Little more intensity, body, and tannin than Ruby and Ruby Reserve.
Some LBVs are not filtered, so more full-bodied than filtered LBVs (“unfiltered” on the label). Similar to Crusted Port, “bottle matured” for bottle ageing of 3 years. Very good quality, style similar to young Vintage Ports. Mid-priced.
Rosé Port
Also called Pink Port, was invented by Croft in the late 2000s. It’s made from black grape varieties (from the coolest areas, high altitudes or from Baixo Corgo). Maceration of the must for only a few hours, before draining the free run juice and clarification. Fermentation at least 15-16°C. Neutral aguardente of high quality. Bottled soon after fortification and released from the winery within a year. Inexpensive to mid-priced, colour (from salmon to almost ruby) and flavours depend on the producer.
White Port
Vary degrees of sweetness and oxidation. Some White Ports are made in a fruity, unoxidized style. Muscatel tends to be one of the key grapes, lending aromatic fruity and floral notes. Grapes crushing, adding of SO2, maceration for a couple of hours at chilled temperatures to limit oxidation. The must is drained and pressed and the juice fermented off the skins (17-18°C). Stainless steel or large old casks for a short period. Lemon colour, medium bodied and flavours of stone fruits or floral notes.
White Ports with high oxidized style, typical with Malvasia (subtle flavours in youth becoming honeyed and nutty with age). Slightly longer on their skins (more phenolics). Ageing for several years in small casks. Amber or brown colour, flavours of caramel, citrus peel, dried stone fruits and nuts.
White Ports with some slight oxidation from more limited ageing in oak (fresh fruit, slight nuttiness).
Same labelling terms as Tawny Ports. Reserve for minimum ageing of 6 years in wood. Also indication of age of 10, 20, 30 or 40 years old (IVDP tasting panel). Colheita from single vintage and ageing for a minimum of 7 years.
Main producers groups of Port wine
Five main groups of producers that make up 80% of production:
- Porto Cruz, the largest producer and own the largest single-brand (Gran Cruz);
- Symington Family Estates (Cockburn’s, Dow’s, Graham’s, Warre’s);
- Sogrape, Portugal’s largest wine producer (Sandeman, Offley, Ferreira);
- The Fladgate Partnership (Taylor’s, Fonseca, Croft, Krohn);
- Sogevinus (Burmester, Barros, Cálem, Kopke).
IVDP
Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e do Porto was founded in 2003 and governs and represents the interests of wine producers in the Douro.
Several tasks:
- controls and supervises the production and trade of wines in the Douro (also unfortified);
- regulates the Port production in any one year (beneficio);
- holds the register of vineyards and companies involved in wine production and shipping;
- controls the volume of Ports released on the market in a year (1/3 of a shipper’s total stock);
- analyses and tastes Port wines to check if they meet specifications;
- promotes wines from the Douro Valley.
Beneficio
Both the system that regulates the amount of Port must that can be produced in a year and the amount. Each vineyard parcel has a classification for its capacity to produce high-quality grapes for Port (location, altitude, aspect, soil, grape varieties planted). Numeric value on each factor and the sum establishes a letter on the parcel (from A to I). Rating A for the highest quality grapes, F and below cannot produce Port wines. The amount of wine produced is agreed upon between the growers, the producers and the IVDP taking into consideration the market demand and the current stocks on the market. The aim of the beneficio system is to keep grape and wine prices stable through its influence on the balance of supply and demand. There is a certificate for each parcel of land. The beneficio sets the prices of the grapes (1.20-1.40 € with beneficio system, 0.25-0.40€ without). Best grapes with beneficio can be sold at higher prices outside the system. Producers can also substitute the inferior grapes of beneficio rating with their own high-quality vineyards. Many growers don’t produce wine but make money only through beneficio system. Transactions and payments are recorded by IVDP.
Port classification by IVDP
IVDP separates Port wines into standard Ruby, Tawny, White and Rosé, and Special Categories (Reserve Ruby, Tawny and White, Tawny and White with an Indication of Age, Colheita, Vintage, Single Quinta, Crusted and LBV).
Important facts in the history of Madeira
A Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean (600 km from Morocco), discovered in 1419 and colonised by Portuguese merchants and their labourers. Burning of large forests to provide room for agriculture and increase soil fertility. Building of terraces and irrigation channels. Sugar (declined during the 16th century), wheat, and vine were the main crops and exports. Growing of the wine trade in the 17th and 18th centuries, British merchants arrived in Madeira and sent the wine to their colonies in North America and the West Indies. It was discovered that long periods on the ships improved the wines, so they were used as hold ballast to improve their quality.
Powdery mildew and phylloxera hit the island during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the 20th, also prohibition in the USA, two World Wars and the Russian Revolution negatively impacted Madeira’s major markets. Sales became more stable towards the end of the century, but consumers changed their tastes.
The Instituto do Vinho da Madeira was founded in 1979 to regulate Madeira production, which was superceded in 2006 by the Instituto do Vinho, do Bordado e do Artesanato da Madeira, IP-RAM (IVBAM). Further regulations in 1986 (Portugal entered the EU).
Climate of Madeira
Warm summers (20-22°C) and mild winters (16-17°C, lack of winter dormancy). Mountainous island (max altitude 1,800 m), moist air in the humid winds from the north, so north and centre are cooler and wetter (rainfall 3,000 mm per year in the centre) than south. The majority of the rainfalls are in the autumn and winter.
Vineyard location in Madeira
Area of 74,000 ha, 450 ha vineyards. Up to 800 m, they tend to be located near the coast with forest covering the mountainous centre of the island.
Soil type of Madeira
Volcanic soils, high in nutrients. So fertile conditions and vigorous vines.
Classification for grape varieties of Madeira
Traditionally, varieties were categorized into noble (Sercial, Verdelho, Boal and Malvasia), good, and authorised. Now the categories are recommended (Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, Malvasia, Terrantez, and Tinta Negra) and authorised (varieties after phylloxera that don’t have the same quality of recommended varieties).
Noble grapes into Madeira grapes classification
Sercial, Verdelho, Boal and Malvasia.
Recommended grapes into Madeira grapes classification
Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, Malvasia, Terrantez, and Tinta Negra.
Authorised grapes into Madeira grapes classification
Varieties after phylloxera that don’t have the same quality of recommended varieties.
Tinta Negra
Black grape, most planted variety, introduced after phylloxera, high yielding, easy to grow. Producers can declare it on the label since 2015. Used for wines at all sweetness levels.
Sercial (grape)
High acidity, used for the driest Madeira. Late ripening (especially in cool sites, barely above the minimum level of potential alcohol). Resistant to powdery mildew but susceptible to botrytis bunch rot and can experience poor fruit set. Small plantings.
Verdelho (grape)
Second most planted, high acidity (slightly lower levels than Sercial). Susceptible to botrytis bunch rot, coulure, and downy and powdery mildews.
Boal (grape)
Umbrella term for a number of grape varieties. On Madeira, Boal Cachudo (Malvasia Fina for White Port). It needs warm, low altitude. Susceptible to drought, so needs adequate irrigation. Used for semi-sweet wines.
Malvasia (grape variety used for Madeira)
Umbrella term for a number of grape varieties. Malvasia Cândida was historically the most important Malvasia and highly prized for its quality. Very susceptible to powdery mildew (can limit yields, so small plantings). Malvasia de São Jorge is the most commonly grown on Madeira. High yields but susceptible to botrytis bunch rot.
Terrantez
Very limited, susceptible to botrytis bunch rot, so is picked soon after it reaches 9% abv potential alcohol.
Training systems for Madeira
Many vineyards are terraced. Vines are trained and trellised into a pergola system (latadas). It allows air circulation above and beneath the vine (reduction of fungal disease in the humid climate). It also permits other crops to be grown on the land underneath. Other training systems are cordon-trained and VSP-trellised (espaldeira).
Latadas
Pergola system used in Madeira. It allows air circulation above and beneath the vine (reduction of fungal disease in the humid climate). It also permits other crops to be grown on the land underneath.
Espaldeira
Cordon-training and VSP-trellising system used in Madeira.
Hazards in Madeira and relative solutions
Canopy management techniques (shoot positioning, leaf removal) because of humid climate (downy mildew, botrytis bunch rot and Phomopsis). Fungicide sprays are usually necessary.
Levadas
Small irrigation channels in Madeira that carry water from the wetter, mountainous centre of Madeira to the vineyard areas.
The maximum yields for Madeira
Maximum yield varies according to the vintage conditions (150 hL/ha is not unusual).
Period of harvest for Madeira
Late August and early September. The official date is decided by IVBAM in consultation with producers and growers.
Minimum potential alcohol at harvest for Madeira
9% abv. In general, they are picked at up to 11% abv.
Winemaking techniques for Madeira production
After harvest, checking of the grapes for weight, health and potential alcohol (representatives of IVBAM must be present for the arrival of all grapes), destemmed and crushed.
Skin contact depends on the producer (often fermentation on the skins for Tinta Negra, particularly for medium-sweet and sweet styles).
Fermentation in stainless steel vessels with ambient yeasts. The timing of fortification depends on the wine style desired (two days for sweet style and a week for dry style). Fortifying alcohol must be 96% abv grape spirit (neutral style). Producers can buy the alcohol where they prefer (quality check by IVBAM). After fortification, 17-18% abv.
Before maturation, fining (bentonite, gelatine, albumin) and filtration (diamatoceous earth). The batches of wine will be also tasted and classified according to their style and quality to determine the maturation way (Estufagem or Canteiro).
Maturation systems for Madeira
Estufagem or Canteiro.
Estufagem
Wine is heated in temperature-controlled stainless steel vessels (estufas). Heated to 45-50°C using a heating coil or water jacket, wine must remain in the tank for at least 3 months. IVBAM seals the vessel at the start and breaks the seal when maturation is complete. Tank is not filled to the top, so some oxidation. The wine is allowed to cool, filtered and left to rest for 6-12 months. Wines may not be sold until 31st October of the second year following harvest. By this method, wines are described as baked or stewed. Not the same complexity as canteiro process. It tends to be used for 3- 5-year-old wines made from Tinta Negra.
Canteiro
Longer and more resource-intensive process associated with higher quality wines. Old oak vessels (400-700 L, leaving a small headspace of air to aid oxidative development) in a warm environment (loft or warehouse, heated by the sun). Temperatures range 25-40°C. It’s typical to store wines at different temperatures (young in warmer and old in cooler). High humidity, so evaporation causes rising of alcohol to 19-20%. So, concentration of sugars, acidity and aromas. Rising of volatile acidity. These wines cannot be sold until three years after 1st January following harvest. Seal by IVBAM.
When Madeira wine by estufagem can be released on the market
Wines may not be sold until 31st October of the second year following harvest.
When Madeira wine by canteiro can be released on the market
These wines cannot be sold until three years after 1st January following harvest.
How additional ageing for Madeira is possible
Additional ageing is possible after estufagem and canteiro. Producers may apply to IVBAM for an EU subsidy (ageing for five years). It depends on the volume in hectolitres. IVBAM will seal the vessel and then unseal it after 5 years. It’s possible to check the wine during the additional ageing under the supervision of a representative from IVBAM.
Types of possible adjustments for Madeira
Adjustments if necessary (fining and filtering). Caramel is used to add colour for inexpensive and mid-priced. Carbon fining to strip colour. RCGM to increase sweetness. Blend with some drier wine to decrease sweetness.
Consequences of oxidation on Madeira wine
Oxidation causes the colour gradually turn to brown and primary aromas to develop into tertiary notes of dried fruit. The warm ageing conditions speed up the oxidation (caramelisation of the sugar). Typical aromas are raisin, caramel, chocolate, nuts, and a smoky character.
Sweetness levels for Madeira
Extra dry, dry, medium dry, medium sweet (or medium rich), and sweet (or rich). Dry have some residual of sugar. Overlap between categories.
Madeira classification by grape varieties
Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, Malvasia (Malmsey), Terrantez, Tinta Negra.
Sercial (Madeira style)
Extra dry or dry, the lightest coloured and bodied, notes of citrus peel and nuts.
Verdelho (Madeira style)
Medium dry, more residual sugar, more body, rounder texture than Sercial; impression of sweeter flavours such as candied fruits, slightly darker in colour than Sercial.
Boal (Madeira style)
Medium sweet, fuller and sweeter than Verdelho, dark colour with flavours of caramel, chocolate and candied nuts.
Malvasia (Madeira style)
Also called Malmsey. Sweet, full-bodied, brown colour, the sweetest style but still balanced by refreshing high acidity; notes of raisins and caramel.
Terrantez (Madeira style)
Medium dry or medium sweet, high levels of sugar but delicacy, aromas of citrus peel, caramel and sometimes floral notes.
Tinta Negra (Madeira style)
Since 2015 can be labelled, any level of sweetness.
From when the bottling date on the Madeira label
2015
Madeira with an Indication of Age
Non-vintage products and may be 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, and more than 50. It’s an indication of style. Verification by IVBAM’s tasting panel, accompanied by an account of all wines used in the final blend. Quality and price rise with increased age. Five-year-old tend to be made predominantly from Tinta Negra (estufagem). Good to very good quality and mid-priced. 10 years old or older are made with one of white varieties (some use Tinta Negra). Made from parcels aged in the canteiro system. More concentration and complexity with ageing, highest acidity. 20 years old or more have outstanding quality and premium and super-premium prices.
Standard blends (Madeira)
Some Madeira don’t qualify for the age indications. Sold between 2-3 years after harvest and are categorised as corrente by IVBAM. Labelled with a brand name of producer (Blandy’s Duke of Clarence) or style descriptions (Henriques & Henriques’ Full Rich Madeira).
Rainwater
Light style in alcohol, body and concentration. Around 18% abv, medium dry, maximum age indication of 10 years. Name maybe because rain diluted the wine during a shipment.
Frasqueira
Also called Garrafeira. The flagships of a producer’s range. Vintage Madeira, at least 20 years in wood for ageing. From prescribed grapes (on the label together year of harvest, Tinta Negra since 2015). Quality check by IVBAM’s tasting panel. Super premium prices. Style depends on the grape used, but great concentration and complexity of tertiary flavours, sweetness balanced by high acidity.
Colheita (Madeira)
Vintage Madeira, ageing minimum 5 years. Can be a blend of varieties or a single variety (grape variety not needed on the label). Quality check by IVBAM’s tasting panel. New category (emerged in 2000), much lower ageing requirements than Frasqueira has determined the success.
Styles of Madeira
- Level of sweetness (extra dry, dry, medium dry, medium sweet or medium rich, and sweet or rich).
- Grape variety (Sercial, Verdelho, Boal, Malvasia, Terrantez, Tinta Negra).
- Madeira with an Indication of Age.
- Standard blends.
- Rainwater.
- Frasqueira.
- Colheita.
How the structure of the Madeira industry is
Over 1,000 growers (average vineyard holding of 0.3 ha). Only eight producers. The three largest companies are Justino’s, Madeira Wine Company and Henriques & Henriques. All producers except Madeira Wine Company and Henriques & Henriques buy the grapes. Agents to provide consultation for growers during the growing season and coordinate the harvesting.
The three largest companies of Madeira
Justino’s, Madeira Wine Company and Henriques & Henriques.
Madeira producers who own or rent vineyards
Madeira Wine Company and Henriques & Henriques.
IVBAM
Instituto do Vinho, do Bordado e do Artesanato da Madeira, founded in 2006, it’s responsible for coordinating and supporting the wine and embroidery industries in Madeira. Monitoring Madeira stocks and quality control. Representatives must be present at grape reception and beginning/end of ageing (seal and unseal). Checking profile for wines with an age indication or a vintage year. Technicians from IVBAM for support and advice to growers. Setting regulations as part of the production and labelling of Madeira.
Main markets for Madeira sales
Main markets are France, domestic, Germany and Japan. France and Germany for inexpensive Madeira, while domestic and Japan for more expensive Madeira. Inexpensive Madeira is used for cooking and/or as part of confectionery. ¼ of total production is used in the food industry.
VDN
Vin Doux Naturels. Category of French wines made sweet by the addition of spirit during fermentation. Several PDOs for these wines, mainly from Roussillon (80%), Languedoc, and the southern Rhône.
Climate of the production area of VDNs
It’s generally Mediterranean. Roussillon is the warmest and driest, influenced by the Tramontane wind (so greater transpiration means greater sugar concentration). The consequence is less spirit for the fortification but also reduced juice yields.
Grape varieties used to produce VDNs
Mainly Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Muscat of Alexandria, and Grenache Noir. Grenache Blanc, Macabeu (Macabeo in Spain) and Grenache Gris may also be part of the blend for VDNs in Roussillon.
Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains
The most widely planted in France. It has smaller grapes than Muscat of Alexandria, greater intensity of aroma and flavour. It’s tolerant of dry weather but susceptible to powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot and mites. Plantings are increasing (popular in dry, unfortified wines).
Muscat of Alexandria
Bigger grapes than Muscat Blanc, high sugar levels. It’s tolerant of dry weather but is susceptible to powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot. Plantings are in decline (wines are less refined than those from Muscat Blanc).
Grenache Noir
Late ripening, good drought resistance (suitable to Mediterranean climate). High yields (pale colour unless these are controlled), quick sugar accumulation. It’s susceptible to coloure at fruit set, and downy mildew, Phomopsis and botrytis bunch rot.
Vineyard management for VDNs
Due to the warm climate, a shady canopy is needed to avoid sunburn and excessive grape shrivelling (particularly for unaged styles of Muscat).
The maximum yields for VDNs
30 hL/ha.
How harvest for VDNs happens
Hand harvest for the grapes (several passes through the vineyards) with a minimum of 14.8% abv potential alcohol. Sometimes grapes are picked slightly riper but producers want to retain as much acidity as possible to balance the sugar. No late harvest or noble rot.
Sweetness levels for VDNs
The minimum concentration of residual sugar depends on the individual appellation but ranges from 100 g/L to 125 g/L for Muscat-based wines, and 45 g/L for Grenache-based wines (usually 100 g/L).
Timing of fortification for VDNs
Neutral spirit (95-96% abv) is added when the fermentation reaches 5-8% abv to make wines of 15-18% abv. No spirity character (only 5-10% of the volume of the wine is made up of fortifying spirit).
Winemaking techniques for white VDNs
Grape pressing and must fermentation off the skins (skin contact of 6-24 hours prior to fermentation to extract greater aromas). Possibility to blend press juice with free run juice for extra body and texture. Unaged VDNs, the must may be chilled and stored and then fermented based on the demand (as fresh as possible). Protection from oxygen to retain primary aromas.
Winemaking techniques for red VDNs
Fermentation and fortification whilst in contact with skins. The addition of fortifying alcohol increases the extraction of colour, flavour, and tannins (important for extensive ageing). Maceration on the skins up two weeks past the fortification date to maximise extraction. Cap management techniques (pumping over and punching down) to maximise extraction.
Fermentation temperatures for VDNs
Stainless steel tanks. Fermentation of white wines at 15°C (fruity ester aromas) while red wines at 28°C (promote extraction but retain fruity aromas).
Labelling terms for the maturation of VDNs
- Youthful, Unaged Wines.
- Oxidatively Aged Wines.
Youthful, Unaged Wines
Labelling term for the maturation of VDNs. Released on the market a few months after fermentation. Stored in closed stainless steel vessels at a cool, constant temperature, protected from oxygen (by blanketing with inert gas). Muscat-based wines show floral and grapey aromas (also peach, pear, and honey). Grenache-based wines show aromas of blackberries, raspberry and plums.
Oxidatively Aged Wines
Labelling term for the maturation of VDNs. Matured in a variety of vessels over a period of several years. Barrels are typically not topped up during maturation (oxidation). Some wines may be aged in glass demi-johns (bonbonnes) that are not quite full, un-stoppered, and left outside in the sun to speed up the ageing process, then may be directly bottled for sales, be transferred and matured further in barrels, or be used as a blending component.
Main areas of VDNs production
Roussillon (80%), Languedoc, and the southern Rhône.
Rhône appellations for VDNs
- Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise.
- Vin Doux Naturel Rasteau.
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOC
Rhône appellation for VDN. Grapes are planted on terraces on the south-east facing slopes of the Dentelles de Montmirail (shelter from the Mistral). 95% of the production is made from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge (dark-skinned mutation) is allowed for red and rosé VDNs. Unaged style. White Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is medium bodied, medium acidity, low alcohol (15% abv), primary aromas (blossom, grape, peach, and honey).
Vin Doux Naturel Rasteau AOC
Rhône appellation for VDN. Grapes are on gentle south-facing slopes (maximum exposure and protection from Mistral, so very ripe grapes). Mainly red, but also rosé (saignée method) and white. Red requires a minimum of 75% Grenache Noir. Grenache Gris, Grenache Blanc and other Southern Rhône varieties can be blended. Unaged (cherries and plums) or oxidative styles (dried fruit and nutty hints). Alcohol is low to medium (16-18% abv).
Languedoc appellations for VDNs
Four VDN appellations, all the wines must be made from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains in an unaged style (subtle differences). Muscat de Frontignan is based south-west of Montpellier at low altitude (warm), so wines with a fuller body and tropical fruit aromas. Muscat de St-Jean-de-Minervois is in the northeast corner of Minervois at 250-300 m above sea level (continental climate) and wines have a higher acidity, lighter body and more stone fruit and floral aromas.
Styles for VDNs from Roussillon
- Grenat/Rimage – unaged styles of red wines, Grenat in Maury and Rivesaltes, Rimage in Banyuls;
- Blanc – unaged style for white wines;
- Tuilé/Traditionnel – oxidative maturation for red wines, Tuilé in Maury and Rivesaltes, Traditionnel in Banyuls;
- Ambré - oxidative maturation for white wines;
- Hors d’âge – longer period of oxidative maturation than Tuilé or Ambré, both white and red;
- Rancio – wine with rancio character, both white and red.
Roussillon appellations for VDNs
- Grand Roussillon AOC.
- Banyuls AOC.
- Banyuls Grand Cru AOC.
- Maury AOC.
- Muscat de Rivesaltes AOC.
- Rivesaltes AOC.
Grand Roussillon AOC
Roussillon appellations for VDN. It’s for the VDNs produced outside the five leading AOCs, or for the declassified wines from those AOCs.
Banyuls AOC
Roussillon appellation for VDN. It’s located at the eastern end of the Pyrenees, bordered by the Mediterranean to the east and Spain to the south. Red wines from a minimum of 50% Grenache Noir, but can also include Grenache Blanc and Grenache Gris. The vineyards are on steep terraced schist slopes. Small amount of white VDNs.
Banyuls Grand Cru AOC
Roussillon appellations for VDN. Same area as Banyuls, only red wines, minimum of 75% Grenache Noir and maturation of 30 months (Tuilé, Hors d’âge, and Rancio if longer ageing).
Maury AOC
Roussillon appellations for VDN. In the north of Roussillon. Vines are at 100-400 m in the foothills of the Pyrenees on dark-coloured schist soils (store heat during the day and release it during the night). Red wines made from a minimum of 75% Grenache Noir. Small amount of white VDNs, unaged style. Dry, unfortified wines can also be made but must be labelled as Maury Sec AOC.
Muscat de Rivesaltes AOC
Roussillon appellation for VDN. The largest appellation in Roussillon in terms of production. Blend of Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains and Muscat of Alexandria, unaged style.
Rivesaltes AOC
Roussillon appellation for VDN. In the north of Roussillon. Different styles of VDNs. Both red and white are made in Grenat, Tuilé, Ambré, Hors d’âge, and Rancio styles. White wines made with a maximum 20% Muscat varieties, and the rest from Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Macabeu and Malvoisie. Red wines are mainly made from Grenache Noir.
Wind that influences the climate of Roussillon
Tramontane
Minimum potential alcohol at harvest for VDN
14.8% abv
During VDN wine production, the alcohol level when fermentation is stopped
5-8% abv
Volume of VDN wine made up of the fortifying spirit
5-10%
The reasons because VDNs don’t have a spirity character
- neutral spirit of 95-96% abv;
- only 5-10% of the volume of the wine is made up of the fortifying spirit.
Important facts in the history of Rutherglen Muscat
Vines were first planted in Rutherglen, Victoria, in the 1850s. Gold discovery in 1858, so boom and investments. Rutherglen produced 25% of Australia’s wines by 1890 (the UK was the main export market). Not clear the type of wine style produced.
Decimation by phylloxera at the end of the 19th century, so replanting on resistant rootstocks. But the new century brought Federation and an end to cross-border tariffs, so difficult to compete with the other Australian regions and did not fully restore its previous area of vineyards. Continuing the production of full body wines and fortified wines. Rutherglen is considered the capital of fortified wines in Australia.
Area of production of Rutherglen Muscat
Rutherglen is inland in the north east of Victoria (411 ha under vine).
Climate of the area of production of Rutherglen Muscat
The climate is continental with warm days, moderated by cool air flow from the Victorian Alps during the night.
How the climate influences Rutherglen Muscat
High sugar concentration due to warm days in the growing season and long, dry autumns. Grapes are often left on the vine (late harvest) for extra ripe and shrivel. It’s common that grapes reach 20% abv and develop dried fruit aromas (raisin).
Characteristics of Rutherglen Muscat harvest
Harvest happens between Mid-March and May. Picking different vineyard blocks at different times to have a mix for the blend (fresh aromas with extra ripe). Noble rot is not desired. Risk of fungal disease if rain in autumn.
Training systems for Rutherglen Muscat
Double cordons with the canopy sprawling over a single foliage wire or held by more wires into a VSP system. Some shade to prevent sunburn. Old vines in Rutherglen, so bunches of smaller grapes with a higher skin to juice ratio which gives deeper coloured and more concentrated wines. The proportion of old vine used can be an element of house style.
Grape variety used for Rutherglen Muscat
It’s made from Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge (Rutherglen Brown Muscat), red-skinned mutation of Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, grapey and floral aromas.
Common potential alcohol at harvest for Rutherglen Muscat
20% abv
Period of harvest for Rutherglen Muscat
Mid-March and May
Key operations during fermentation and fortification of Rutherglen Muscat
Picking shrivelled grapes means it’s hard to extract the dense juice immediately. Crushed Muscat grapes ferment briefly on their skins (break down the pulp and release sugar and flavours). Enzymes may be added and cap management techniques (punching down, pumping over, rotary fermenters) aid the extraction.
Draining off the skins when juice gains 1-2% alcohol, so skins are pressed and the combined juice is fortified to reach around 17.5% abv. Fortifying spirits at 96% (neutral).
Clarification by racking off lees or by light filtration. Possibility of adjustments to pH and perform light fining for protein stability (no deposits which can cause off-flavours during maturation).
Maturation for Rutherglen Muscat
Very old oak vessels, often in warm conditions. Classically, in warehouses with tin roofs (hot in summer); those nearer the top mature quickly due to warmer temperatures. Insulated sections to retain more-even, cooler temperatures throughout the year (retain freshness).
Large round or oval casks of the capacity of 1,300 to 9,000 L and small barrels of 180 to 500 L (great concentration and more oxidation). The wood is often very old.
Water evaporates gradually from oak vessels, causing alcohol, sugar and acidity levels to rise gradually over time. The speed is determined by the heat, the size of the vessel and the humidity (warm and dry conditions mean quicker rate). Frequent topping up the barrels to avoid oxidation, others encourage oxidation.
The wines gradually turn from pale pink, ruby or garnet to deep brown, increase in sweetness, alcohol and acidity levels, become fuller-bodied and more syrupy, and develop more tertiary flavours.
Vessels used for maturation for Rutherglen Muscat
Large round or oval casks of the capacity of 1,300 to 9,000 L and small barrels of 180 to 500 L (great concentration and more oxidation). The wood is often very old.
Blending characteristics for Rutherglen Muscat
Most Rutherglen Muscat wines are non-vintage, so the blend between old and new wines is very important (balance between freshness and complexity). Some producers use a modified solera system. Blending helps producers to reach their house style (wines from less-ripe grapes stored in cool areas give a fresher and fruity style, wines with different levels of sugar can fine-tune the perception of sweetness in the final wine).
Muscat of Rutherglen Network
An organization founded by producers in 1995. The aim was to promote sales of Rutherglen Muscat. It introduced a classification system based on richness, complexity and intensity. The wines are classified on taste, rather than age.
Classification system for Rutherglen Muscat
- Rutherglen Muscat.
- Classic Rutherglen Muscat.
- Grand Rutherglen Muscat.
- Rare Rutherglen Muscat.
Rutherglen Muscat - requirements and characteristics
The foundation of the style, average age 3-5 years, residual sweetness 180-240 g/L. Medium garnet colour, pronounced aromas of raisins, figs, dates, and sweet spices. Sweet on the palate and full bodied with medium+ acidity, medium alcohol. Very good quality and mid-priced.
Classic Rutherglen Muscat - requirements and characteristics
A greater level of concentration, complexity and tertiary flavours, average age 6-10 years, residual sweetness 200-280 g/L. Deeper colour, more concentration and greater complexity. Quality and price are between Rutherglen Muscat and Grand and Rare.
Grand Rutherglen Muscat - requirements and characteristics
Even greater concentration and complexity from blending both young and very mature wines, average age 11-19 years, residual sweetness 270-400 g/L. Tawny or brown colour, more of a nutty, treacle, liquorice character. Even sweeter and fuller bodied than younger Rutherglen Muscats, higher acidity and still some degree of fruit to provide balance. Outstanding quality and super-premium prices.
Rare Rutherglen Muscat - requirements and characteristics
Tiny volumes and represent the pinnacle of Rutherglen Muscat, minimum average age 20 years (can often be much older), residual sweetness 270-400 g/L. Tawny or brown colour, more of a nutty, treacle, liquorice character. Even sweeter and fuller bodied than younger Rutherglen Muscats, higher acidity and still some degree of fruit to provide balance. Outstanding quality and super-premium prices.
The main export markets for Rutherglen Muscat
China, the UK and the USA.
During Rutherglen Muscat wine production, the alcohol level when fermentation is stopped
1-2% abv
The factors on which the Rutherglen Muscat classification is based
Taste, not age. Richness, complexity, and intensity.
Fortified wine - definition
A wine that has had additional alcohol added either before fermentation is complete or after fermentation has finished.
Examples of fortified wines with low alcohol
- biologically aged Sherries;
- some youthful styles of VDN.
Examples of fortified wines with medium alcohol
- oxidised styles of Sherry;
- some Madeira;
- some aged VDNs;
- Rutherglen Muscat.
Examples of fortified wines with high alcohol
- Port;
- older oxidised styles of Sherry and Madeira.
Maturation methods used for fortified wines
- unaged;
- aged in bottle;
- oxidative ageing;
- biological ageing.
Key characteristics to consider for balance in fortified wines
- integration of alcohol;
- where applicable, the balance of tannin/acid/residual sugar.
The name of the mountain range to the north of DO Porto that shelters the region from winds
Serra do Marão
During Port wine production, the alcohol level when fermentation is stopped
5-7% abv
