South Africa - What was Black Consciousness and how did it influence the Soweto Uprising? Flashcards
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What 2 conflicting things did the Extension of University Education Act 1959 do?
designed to cut down the African elite’s aspirations to join common society
also greatly extended HE for black people
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What were 3 things the NP realised about black education?
- whites could not provide all skills for economic development
- new homelands needed groups of professional and officials if to ever function as self-governing
- needed to create ethnically specific unis
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What uni became a melting pot linguistically, ethnically, and politically? What 2 radical ideas met there?
Uni of Turfloop
radical Christian and black American ideas
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
In the 1960s, what proportion of African people professed Christianity?
2/3
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What successes drifted back to the students through newspapers, books and talks?
North American civil rights successes
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
Where did Biko get educated? Who did he read a lot of?
medical school of Uni of Natal’s (segregated)
Malcolm and MLK
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What year did Bike set up SASO (SA Students’ Organisation)? And for what purpose? What column in the student newspaper did he write under?
1969
for people to feel pride in their ethnicity and protest their conditions
‘Frank Talk’
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
When was Biko thrown out of Natal Uni?
1972
neglecting his studies to become a powerful speaker
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
When did the Soweto Uprising happen? How was Biko involved in this?
1976
Biko had no contact with the pupils
but students were inspired by his ideas
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What was Biko’s punishment after his original arrest in 1973? Why was Biko finally arrested in 1977? What happened while he was in prison?
banning order
defying banning order
naked and chained to a grille
beaten
tipped into the back of a Land Rover and driven to hospital where he died at 30
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What were 2 community projects Biko was involved in?
set up health centre called Zanenphilo
set up Njwaxa (a cottage industry in which unemployed blacks produced leather goods)
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What links Biko to black consciousness?
- new phase of SA resistance that took up Africanist ideas from PAC and ANCYL
- included liberation theology
- Biko began to call their views and movements ‘black consciousness’
STEVE BIKO AND SASO
What is liberation theology?
religion can be used to take a leading role in struggles against social and political suppression
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What was the definition of black consciousness?
awareness of one’s identity as a black person
esp. as a basis for political grouping and movements
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What 3 roles did black consciousness play in the mobilisation of the young?
- educated
- inspired
- mobilised
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What 3 ways did the SASO organise a strong black presence at unis (Durban and Western cape e.g.)?
- influecning and controllong Student Representative Councils
- used end of Mozambique colonial rule in 1974 to stage mass protests
- leadership moved from ideological mobilisation to direct confrontation
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
At Turfloop, they organised a rally for the end of the Mozambique colonial rule. How many attended, how did the police react and what did the Africans sing?
1200 attended
police arrived to break it up
700 congregated and sung ANC anthem Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika (God bless Africa)
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What did the Durban students do for the Mozambique rallies? Where? Ignoring what?
SASO staged a march and rally
at a public stadium
ignored a gov ban
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
In 1972, what movement and what convention was launched?
Black Consciousness Movement
Black People’s Convention
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What was a small similarity between black consciousness and historical Africanist organisations? But what were leaders careful to do with this?
they both drew on the Africanist heritage of the PAC
distance themselves from direct connection with banned orgs
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What are 4 key differences between the previous Africanist movements and black consciousness?
- PAC movement largely of migrant workers while BC was mainly youth and students
- BC did not look to the rest of Africa for its inspiration (their independence had given way to one-party states and dictators)
- BC did not focus on African tradition
- BC directly attack idea of homelands
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
Turfloop was particularly important. What 3 reasons show student president Abraham Tiro’s speech in 1972 so important?
- he was a Christian, inspired by BC
- not radical
- in front of white assembly
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What 3 things did Tiro attack the uni of Turfloop for?
- poor facilities
- discrimination against African staff
- inequalities of SA generally
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What happened to Tiro after his speech?
he was expelled
he began found a post teaching at Morris Isaacson High School in Soweto
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What secondary branch had students at Turfloop created? What was this organisation?
SASM
SA Students’ Movement
BC organisation in the schools
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What BC sponsored newspaper provided an important vehicle for political ideas? What are 2 reasons why?
The World in Soweto
- growing literacy among African youth
- increase coverage (did not direct promoting) of emerging BC politics
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What decision related to SASO was made by government in March 1973? Why?
banning orders against most prominent leaders (Biko, Tiro)
it was becoming too dangerous
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
Why had the gov had a degree of tolerance for SASO in its earlier years?
it seemed to have potential for reinforcing apartheid
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What was the SASO’s defendant’s called in their 1975 trial under Terrorism Act? What are 3 ways the SASO 9 able to secure a high profile for their ideas?
SASO 9
- were not illegal so press were free to quote them
- sang freedom songs and raise clenched fists in courtrooms
- Biko gave evidence for defence and outlined the philosophy of BC
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
In 1975, where was the momentum of protest shifting to?
schools
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
What statistics indicate schools were expanding quickly at this time
1950-1975: no. of African children at school increased from 1 million to 3.5 million+
Soweto: 1972-1976 - high school numbers increased from 12,600 to 34,000
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
Why had Bantu education become sites of deprivation and explosive political potential?
the growth in African school children put pressure on building and teaching staff
classes of over 60
BC was a highly new and fashionable language geared to teh youth
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
Why did the BC give students a stronger sense of identity than tsotsis?
they had to confront the everyday reality that gangs dominated the streets.
e.g. it divided them as some were fighting the gov and some were against the gangs
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
What were 3 dangers of tsotstis?
- threats
- demanding sex from school girls
- stabbing if they followed or challenged gangs
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
Name 3 examples of street gangs.
the Hazels
Dirty Dozen
Bandidos
MOBILISATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
By 1976, what were African school children doing to combat the gangs?
combining against the gangs
formed self-defence units prepared to use violence
BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
What were the 2 main goals of the BCM?
- non-cooperation with white groups
2. encouraging Indians and Coloured people to see themselves as black and equally subject t white oppression
SOWETO UPRISING
Causes
What did the Transvaal Bantu Education Department/Botha’s (Minister of Bantu Education)’s 1974 Afrikaans Medium Decree do? Why was this opposed?
made teaching in Afrikaans (and English) in African schools compulsory
- Afrikaans was seen as ‘language of the oppressor’
- further act to separate the education of Bantus
SOWETO UPRISING
Causes:
What are 4 causes of the Soweto Uprising (in priority)?
- Education - Bantu Education Act 1953, Botha’s Afrikaans Medium Decree, Extension of University Act 1959, ‘homeland policy’ (no new high schools built in Soweto, 1962-71)
- Black Consciousness Movement (can include SASO here)
- black gangs
- formation of SASO raised students’ political consciousness
SOWETO UPRISING
Causes
(Education)
What is the ‘homelands policy’? When did the gov give in and what did they do? How much did the gov spend on white schools vs balck?
no new high schools built in Soweto
between 1962-71
1972 - gov gave in to pressure from business to improve Bantu system
e.g. 40 new schools then built in Soweto
white schools - R664 million
black schools - R42 million
SOWETO UPRISING
Causes
(Education and SASO)
What does the SASO believed Bantu Education was designed to do?
- ‘deprive Africans’
- isolate them from ‘subversive ideas’
- ‘gutter’ education
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
When did SASM try to organise boycotts in protest?
May 1976
SOWETO UPRISING
When did the Soweto Uprising take place?
16 June 1976
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What group of students started the Uprising? Where did they march from and to?
high school students in Soweto, Johannesburg
marched from Morris Isaacson High School
marched to Orlanda Stadium
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What did the children plan to demonstrate against?
the government;s new education directive (enforcing the use of Afrikaans in schools)
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
Who had they been mobilized by? Who had they been inspired by?
mobilized - SASM
inspired - BCM
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
As the news of the protest spread, what action did the police take?
police converged on Soweto
they shot at school children and throwing tear gas
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
Who was the first victim?
13 year old Hector Pieterson
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What was the reaction to the police shooting children by African children and what did the police respond again with? Who joined the Uprising and what did they help doing?
- shock and outrage
- police responded with more tear gas and gunfire
- joined by angry crowds of Soweto residents
- reacted by attacking and burning down gov building
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
How many africans and whites were killed that day?
174 Africans
2 Whites
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What did the government do the next day?
- closed down schools
- put military on alert
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What did the revolt turn into? What was the estimated deaths?
a widespread revolt (turned into an uprising that lasted the year)
700 deaths
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What happened on Turfloop Uni on 17 June 1976?
they marched in sympathy
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What happened on 18th June in the Alexandra township in Johannesburg?
shop and liquor stores in Alexandra township were attacked
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
When was the Soweto Students’ Representative Council formed? And by who? Who was it initally led by?
Aug 1976 after a meeting at Regina Mundi Catholic Church
formed by students
initially led by Tsietsi Mashinini from Morris Isaacson School
SOWETO UPRISING
Events
What organisation did Winnie Mandela and Dr Nthatho Motlana form? What role did it have?
Black Parents’ Association
take on the role of organising funerals.
e.g. politicised occasions
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
What were 4 results of the Uprising?
- international revulsion
- weakened and exiled liberation movements received new recruits
- economy felt shock (god and diamond shares dropping)
- demonstrations across the country
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
What sparked the international revulsion? What was the reaction of certain people?
- the photograph by journalist Sam Nzima
- showing 13 y/o Hector Pieterson being carried whilst dying
- became a symbol of state violence and black rage
- frightening white people
- encouraging for many black SAs to see this on a television service for 6 months old
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
Where did demonstrations in townships/major cities spread to? What demonstrations continued?
spread to more than a hundred urban centres
many smaller rural towns
schools at centre of revolt
worker stay-at-homes
consumer boycotts
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
What forms did the insurrection take over the year of the revolt?
rioting
burning barricades
sotoning cars
destruction of gov buildings/official beer halls
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
What did adqueatley trained police do?
fired live rounds and tear gas
without restraint
foten from armoued cars knwon as ‘hippos’
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
Why did the cycle of violence carry on?
funerals became public political events
resulted in further police action and shootings
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
What encouraged the new activists?
anger
mass arrests
detentions
SOWETO UPRISING
Results
What did one of the whites beaten to death on the first day of violence write about?
warning of the anger of Soweto’s youth
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
How many people were dead in police custody without trial since 1963 when Biko died?
45
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
When did Biko die?
12 Sept 1977
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What did his death illustrate about the security forces?
uncontrolled powers of security force
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
As bus loads of mourners neared the funeral, what was 2 prominent attendees?
white liberal Helen Suzman attended
black American diplomat McHenry
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
How many people marched at the funeral and what did they sing?
20,000
freedom songs
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What did the Transkei Anglican priest appealed to God for?
take sides with the oppressed to overthrow the system
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What disruption was reported before and during the funeral?
police disruption
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
Why did the SA gov mobilise its riot police?
to break groups of mourners in anticipation of the protests
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What happened to the people who were involved in the organisation of Biko’s funeral?
arrested, detained or banned
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What happened to people travelling to King William’s town for the funeral?
arrested for not carrying their pass books
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
Where did the biggest incidence of police interference occur? Why had people gathered a tthe YWCA?
in the Dube Young Women Christian Association (YWCA)
in Soweto
to hold a night vigil prior to their departure by bus
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
Why had people gathered at the YWCA?
to hold a night vigil prior to their departure by bus
the Black People’s Comvention deiced to go ahead with the funeral arrangements even those the polcie refused them 2 bus permits
while buses were loading people, the riot police arrive and began to smash windows and whip people
police officers also fired teargas cannisters into the hall where other mourners were praying
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
How long did he spend in solitary confinement? What was he denied in there?
20 days
clothes, exercise, hygiene
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
Where was Biko taken and savagely beaten?
police HQ in Port Elizabeth
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
How long was he chained to a metal grille? Where did he die?
2 days
died on way to prison hospital 700 miles away in Pretoria in only a blanket
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What was the initial story of Biko’s death? What was the other story?
- he attacked police officers during interrogation
- fell against a wall in violent struggle
related to a hunger strike
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
Was anyone prosecuted over his death?
no one was prosecuted
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
Who provided some evidence that challenged the cover up (and his job and relation to Biko)? What evidence did he produce?
Donald Woods (white editor of Liberal East London newspaper ‘Daily Dispatch’) (raised profile of Biko as he took up his ideas)
allegations of police brutality
photographs taken in the morgue
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
- Where did Biko’s death in police custody provoke international disapproval?
- What did Carter speak about and come across as?
- What action did Carter propose to the UN?
- What did Nigeria call Biko’s death?
Western countries with commercial and diplomatic relations with SA
Carter was more sympathetic to SA’s fight for civil rights
and provoked him to speak against the apartheid regime
proposed an arms embargo on SA after Uprising and Death
called it a ‘murder’
DEATH OF STEVE BIKO
What were 3 impacts in South Africa?
- became a face of African protest
- subject of film Cry Freedom
- people now worried that a peaceful solution was not possible
