South Africa - How did African nationalism develop, 1948-59? Flashcards
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1948? Who was a famous squatter?
- strikes
- bus boycotts
- squatter movements
- street protests
- mass rallies
a famous squatter was James Mpanza (landlord) nicked named Magebula (‘slicer of land’)
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1949?
Durban riots
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1950?
opposition to the Suppression of Communism Act
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1952?
Defiance Campaign
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1955?
- ‘We Won’t Move’ campaign
- Freedom Charter signed
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1956?
- women teared up pass books
- Treason Trial opposition
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1957? Why did they boycott?
- Alexandra bus boycotts
they boycotted because getting the bus from townships to the cities cut into their meagre wages
WHAT POLITICAL OPPOSITION EXISTED
…in 1959?
women’s shebeen protest at Cato Manor
POLITICAL OPPOSITION
Why was black opposition divided?
- there was no single black opposition group
- no single ideology
- they were divided by geography, race, class and interest
- NP had gradually developed strategies to police and restrict protest
POLITICAL OPPOSITION
What was a major reason the political oppposition reached a higher point?
the unification of African after the British Empire granted it self-rule, meant that Black Africans were excluded from equal political rights
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
When was the ANC created?
1912
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What were the 2 great strengths of the ANC?
- organisational continuity
- capacity to attract some of the best-educated of African elite
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What gap, in the 1940s, did the ANC see?
more cautious, established professional leadership
vs
new generation of activists
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
When was the ANC Youth League founded?
1944
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
Who was it initially led by?
Aton Lembede
Oliver Tambo
Walter Sisulu
Nelson Mandela
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What did the ANC YL galvanise the movement into?
- a more radical action
- new mass political action
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What were they inspired by?
- anti-colonial rhetoric
2. new confidence in West Africa
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What prompted the ANC YL to launch a Programme of Action in 1949? What did the programme say?
the NP victory in 1948
said:
more confrontational approach to white minority rule
e.g. boycotts, passive resistance, work stoppages
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
How was the ANC YL different to the ANC old guard?
- the programme was an attack on the ANC old guard
- they called for African consciousness
- called for unity rather than socialism
- not motivated by religious ideas
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What ANC leader did they help oust? Who and when did they replace them with?
ousted the moderate Dr Xuma
1952 - replaced him with sympathetic Albert Luthuli (Christain Zulu chief)
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
When was the YL’s Programme of Action adopted by the ANC?What move did this signify?
Dec 1949
move from concession-seeking a white gov
to
more miltant liberation organisation
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
What were the 2 different visions of the future within the ANC?
- Africanism
2. democratic non-racialism
REVIVAL OF ANC AND YOUTH LEAGUE
Were the majority of the YL’s educated?
a small minority had been to uni
but they treasured their philosophy of Africanism more
OTHER ORGS
Why did the Communist Party believe accept the idea of a 2 stage revolution? What even was this?
because they knew it would be unlikely to find mass support when racial oppression was too central
2 stage revolution
- work with African nationalists to achieve national democratic revolution
- social revolution
OTHER ORGS
When did the NP ban the Communist Party?
1950
OTHER ORGS
Why was the CP strange?
racially diverse with black and white intellectuals and workers
OTHER ORGS
Who was not accepted into the ANC itself?
Whites, Indians and Coloured people
OTHER ORGS
Who formed parallel Congress organisations? What alliance did they join from here?
- SA Indian Congress
- White and Coloured activists
this meant non-Africans became part of Congress Alliance
OTHER ORGS
What groups surprisingly emerged as highly critical of apartheid? When did they form a party?
white liberals
formed Liberal Party in 1953
OTHER ORGS
Did the Liberals work with blacks?
attracted some black support
but were suspicious of the ANC and Communists so no.
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
What was the strategy?
- to break racially based restricts
- to risk arrest
e.g. curfews and segregated facilities
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Who was appointed Volunteer-In-Chief? With who else?
Nelson Mandela
with Yusuf Cachalia of Indian Congress
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
What cities intended to be the heart of the campaign? What actually happened there?
Johannesburg and Durban
support was relatively thin
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Where were the most arrests made?
6000/8000 in Eastern Cape (incl. East London)
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
How many involved? What was their living situation like?
35,000
African poverty
High infant mortality rate
e.g. .37% of babies died in 1st year
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
After the YL militants found their way to city, the campaign begins with how many people?
1500
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What 3 things did local leader Gwentshe speak of?
- overthrow of white domination
- total rejection of white rule
- resulting era of democracy and independence
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
In the first full month of defiance (July 1952), what happened at the large meetings?
- ANC dressed distinguishably (black berets, neckerchiefs)
- people willingly arrested to overload courts and make laws less enforceable
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What 3 actions did they black Africans take?
- sat on white-only benches
- urinated in white only public bathrooms
- refused to pay fines
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
As the protests went on, who started to show up more and more?
youths in the form of some violent street gangs
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What split occurred in Oct?
between the 2 local ANC leaders
moderate Gwentshe vs radical Fazzie
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
In Nov, what did the Minister of Justice ban?
all public gatherings for a month
they sent armed reinforcements
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
After this ban, what did activists in East London do?
go ahead with what they advertised as a religious gathering on 9 Nov
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What happened after the 9 Nov gathering?
- police unsuccessful in dispersing them
- opened fire and the crowd dispersed
- youths formed small groups to stone police and burn buildings
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What 2 people were killed by black crowds?
2 white people
e.g. Sister Aidan Quinlan’s car was alight as she sat inside
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
How many deaths and injuries?
7 African deaths
18 seriously injured
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What was the ANC’s reaction to the incident?
- disturbed
- called the Defence Campaign off nationally as it was no longer dependent on vital tight organisation and non-violent action
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
Case Study: East London
What was the outcome for the ANC after this reaction?
- membership shot up from 4,000 to 100,000
- attracted a mass following
- ANC resisted the Group Areas Act in Sophiatown
- attracted support, publicity and moral authority
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
What was the implications for the black Africans involved in the campaign?
- some lost their jobs
- teachers expelled
- 47 members of Congresses involved were convicted
DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN
What did the government respond with
- prohibition of meetings of more than 10 Africans
- Criminal Laws Amendment Act (heavy penalties for Defiance offences)
- extensive use of suppression of communism act
ANC AND WOMEN
When was the Women’s League incorporating women’s organisations into the ANC setup?
1948
ANC AND WOMEN
Where were women seen as prominent in political opposition?
grass roots protests of the Defiance Campaign
esp. in Eastern Cape
ANC AND WOMEN
After the gov announced they were extending pass laws to women in 1955, what did the women organise?
a delegation to meet Minister of Native Affairs, Verwoerd
but he refused to meet hem as they were a multiracial group
ANC AND WOMEN
What happened at the 1956 march?
led by Lilian Ngoyi
major protests against passes
collected signatures
20,000 marched to Union buildings in Pretoria
as Strijdom was not there, they left the petitions at his door
ANC AND WOMEN
What did the success of the 1956 marches challenge?
the stereotype that women lack political drive
ANC AND WOMEN
Why did the women protest at the Durban shebeens in 1957?
- they were annoyed at being harassed by police
- they attacked and burnt 2 beer halls
- they were violently attacked by police
RURAL RESISTANCE
What are 2 examples of rural resistance?
- alexandra bus boycotts, 1957
- Sekhukhuneland
RURAL RESISTANCE
What was the extended reason the Alexandra bus boycotts start?
Group Areas Act and Native Resettlement Act 1954
both meant that Africans were driven from their homes near city centre (dependent on buses)
RURAL RESISTANCE
What was the short term reason the bus boycotts started?
- gov had paid busses to keep fares down (so Africans would not ask for higher wages)
- but some companies did put their fares up
RURAL RESISTANCE
What happened after the bus boycott was in action?
- police harassed the population
- they accused the ANC of intimidating the police
- the fare increase was removed
RURAL RESISTANCE
What action by the Department of Native Affairs in teh 1950s deeply split the people of Sekhukhuneland?
planned to make Sek into a homeland
- tried to appoint tribal authorities to run it
RURAL RESISTANCE
Why were the people split about the Department of Native Affairs’ action?
- concerned with idea of bantustans
- concerned to keep open their access to urban employment
- worried gov would appoint chiefs who supported ‘betterment’ esp. culling of cows
RURAL RESISTANCE
What did the people of Sek call their organisation? Did they support the ANC?
Sebatakgomo
ANC: yes, to a rural context
RURAL RESISTANCE
What happened in Sek authority in 1957?
gov tried to impose Bantu Authorities Act and deposed paramount chief, to people who would cooperate
RURAL RESISTANCE
How did the people of Sek view the installation of ‘cooperators’ to the government? What did they do as a result?
9 were seen as government collaborators
they were stabbed, beaten or burned out of their hosues
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
What did the ANC call for in 1955? What was this called?
a Congress, to bring together all delegates from all groups the ANC had been working with
called the Congress Alliance
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
What groups were included in the Congress Alliance?
ANC Whites (Congress of Democrats) SAIC (Indians) CPC (Coloured) SATU (trade unions)
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
How did the Congress Alliance write the demands of the Freedom Charter?
- sent out 50,000 volunteers into townships and countryside to ask what their ‘freedom demands’ were (for future)
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
What did the Freedom Charter essentially call for?
FULLY DEMOCRATIC SA
- W/ FAIRER DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND LAND
- NON-RACIAL SA
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
What did the Charter lay an important foundation for?
future political mobilisation
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
Where was the Congress of the people held? When was the Charter officially adopted?
Kliptown, Soweto
26 June 1955
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
What are the 5 R’s of significance?
Remarkable Resulting in change Revealing Remembered Resonant
THE FREEDOM CHARTER
What were 5 significant things about the Charter?
- Congress Alliance multi-racial
- nearly 3000 delegates attended and 50,000 volutneers
- Chief Luthuli had signifiacnt views
- Democrats and Trade Unions represented workers/political views
- Charter demands remained same until 1994
PAC
The PAC was separate from the ANC’s views. What 2 ideas did the ANC combine in the 1950s?
Africanist ideas of early Youth League
and
non-racial approach of the combined Congress Alliance
PAC
How did the PAC maintian its distinct political identity?
- published a regular newsletter ‘The Africanist’ (e.g. idea of ‘Africa for the Africans)
- significant leaders from teachers e.g. Robert Sobukwe and Potlake Leballo
PAC
What are the differing ways the PAC thought form the ANC?
- thought non-Africanists were gaining too much influence in the Congress movement
- complete independence implied the return of land to Africans
- Freedom Charter was too concerned with civil rights for all
- more explicitly Pan-Africanist ideas
- more confrontational direct action
PAC
What 2 incidents triggered organisational split, that eventually created the PAC, in 1958?
- leaders of provincial ANC in Transvaal re-elected with no debate (due to leaders too busy with Treason Trial to stand)
- ANC conference in Johannesburg saw Luthuli compared narrow Africanist nationalism to tribalism
e. g. Sokukwe spoke to challenge and the Africanists walked out
PAC
What did the Africanists try intially to do before becoming the PAC? When and how did it become the PAC?
tried to form separate provincial organisations within ANC
April 1959, held a founding covention for a PAC in Orlando
PAC
Within the ANC, why did they feel the PAC had been created? What was the real reason the PAC was created?
- gov want them to organise freely to split nationalist movement
- gov also thought that PAC’s ideas might be closer to ‘separate development’
real reason: the PAC was hostile to the division of SA into Bantustans
