South Africa - Did the ANC and PAC radicalise after 1960? Flashcards
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Why did the ANC and PAC have to rethink their political strategies in 1960?
because they were banned and illegal
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
When was the State of Emergency lifted? Why?
August 1960
the gov thought it had stopped momentum of popular protest
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
In early 1950s and 60s what was the ANC strategy with examples?
occasionally violence against property and people
(East London, Durban)
never violence against whites in mind
(except Mpondoland)
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
What was the ANC sure they did not want or were ready for? Why?
to find arms to fight gov
because they knew the gov retaliation would be harsh
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
What did the ANC hold their commitment to?
peaceful protect and civil disobedience
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Who discussed the armed struggle in 1962 and how?
Mandela and Sisulu
e.g. violence occasionally mentioned in speeches
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Why did the ANC have to be so careful when a decision so urgently needed?
urgently needed after banning of movements
but the reason lawyers got leaders acquitted from Treason Trial was that they established the ANC was not commited violent overthrow of the state
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
During the Treason Trials, what ANC meeting was held? What was discussed there?
All-In-African Conference
adovcation of a national constitutional convention
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Why did they hold this convention for a national constitution?
they believe that all SAs, not just whites, should be consulted on constitutional decisions
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
What meeting occurred in Cape Town?
a similar meeting to the constitutional convention one
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
What else did the ANC decide on after the SA as a republic?
a 3 day stayaway in May 1961
to coincide with moment SA became a republic
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Who was the first to adopt armed struggle? How did they do this?
SACP
operating underground and in secret
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Although, some members were doubtful. Who was?
Trade Unionist Moses Kotane
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
Who were members of the SACP and ANC? What benefit did this serve?
Sisulu, Kotane
both parties were fully informed
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
When did the ANC explicitly decide to adopt armed struggle?
June 1961
MOVE TO ARMED STRUGGLE
What was the split of the party after the adoption of armed struggle?
Luthuli and SAIC were against violence out of principle
vs
others who:
- concerned the movement was not ready for armed struggle
- uncertain about wider support
- harsh retaliation
ANC/MK
What does ‘uMkhonto weSizwe’ mean?
‘spear of the nation’
ANC/MK
Who is MK attached to?
ANC and CP
ANC/MK
Who is MK led by?
Mandela (ANC) Joe Slovo (CP)
ANC/MK
What was the MK’s targets?
strategic sites:
- communication posts
- power units
rather than places where loss of life was a risk
ANC/MK
When was their first act?
Dingaan’s Day
- when white SA was commemorated
- after the Boer victory over Zulus at Battle of Blood River, 1836
- coincided with Luthuli’s return from Norway receiving his Nobel Peace Prize
ANC/MK
Why was the MK only ‘in theory’ attached to ANC?
- to protect ANC against further repression
- ANC was not fully united behind the decision to adopt armed struggle
ANC/MK
Why would communist links prove to be improtant for the armed struggle?
USSR made largest financial contribution to help with training and education
ANC/MK
What other country helped out training men?
1961 - 5 African men were sent to China for training in guerrilla tactics
PAC/POQO
What does ‘POQO’ mean?
‘pure’/’alone’
PAC/POQO
Who is it attached to?
PAC
PAC/POQO
Who was it lead by? And after that?
Robert Sobukqwe (was imprisoned)
Potlako Leballo
took over)
PAC/POQO
What was Poqo’s aim?
to take human life
- police
- informers
- Transkei chiefs
PAC/POQO
What was Poqo’s first acts?
22 Nov 1962 Paarl March
- 250 men armed with axes and homemade weapons
- marched to town and attacked stations, homes etc.
PAC/POQO
What was another deplorable act done by Poqo?
4 Feb 1963 Mbashe Bridge killings
- violent murder of a white family in Transkei
- hacked to death
PAC/POQO
How was the Poqo controlled?
with little central control
cells worked independently of each other
PAC/POQO
How did they recruit members?
worked in townships to politically educate people
PAC/POQO
How were the rate Poqo killings reacted to?
- well-publicised
- people became fearful
- used as justifications as to why African people were savages
PAC/POQO
Why did Poqo find itself without the support it needed and fell apart?
- aggressive response by apartheid
- virulently anti-white stance of Poqo
PAC/POQO
What overtook Poqo in 1968?
Azanian People’s Liberation Army (APLA)
What are 4 factors as to why the ANC and PAC have little capacity for a sustained armed struggle?
- no physical base in SA or neighbouring country
- little training
- little support from abroad
- REPRESSIVE POWER OF THE STATE
RIVONIA TRIAL
What was Mandela doing at his time of arrest in 1962?
travel abroad for 6 months
operate underground
RIVONIA TRIAL
How were most of the key opposition-to-apartheid leaders arrested and tried?
headquarters of MK was at a small farm in Rivonia, north of Johannesburg
it was raided in 1963
RIVONIA TRIAL
What were the accusations against the political leaders?
- recruiting fighters
- attempts to commit sabotage
- links with communist orgs
- soliciting money from foreign states
RIVONIA TRIAL
What was Mandela’s speech at the dock like?
he did not deny accusations
he used the opportunity to sketch out the limitations Africans suffered
RIVONIA TRIAL
Who defended the African leaders? What did the prosecution call for?
white lawyers sympathetic to liberation struggle
the death penalty
RIVONIA TRIAL
What are 3 possible reasons the Afrikaner judge imposed life imprisonment inistead?
- Mandela’s speech
- morality of the defence’s cause
- sensing ANCs leadership would be needed in the future
RIVONIA TRIAL
Where was Sobukwe? Who was with him?
already incarcerated on Robben Island
only black ANC leaders joined him
RIVONIA TRIAL
Why was the ‘Free Nelson Mandela’ movement only popular in 1980s, not in the 1960s when he was imprisoned?
the imprisonment of leaders was not too significant at the time
- it was major news when Mandela, Sisulu were arrested
- however, the government neutralised Mandela by placing him on Robben Island with others
- communicated with outside adn inside was limited and censored
RIVONIA TRIAL
Since Mandela was the leader of the MK, who took over?
Joe Modise (commanded until 1983)
LEADERS OF ANC
What happened to Luthuli?
continued to practice non-violence
LEADERS OF ANC
What happened to Oliver Tambo?
- left SA in 1960
- gov banned him from returning
- he travelled the world for 30 years
- he was trying to persuade governments to bring about change in SA
- ANC set up offices in Britain, Tanzania etc.
LEADERS OF ANC
What happened to Joe Slovo?
- white communists used their connections to USSR to get hold of weapons
- lead to many countries viewing ANC with suspicious
What 2 things did the 1963 General Laws Amendment Act do?
- “Sobukwe Clause”: allowed people already convicted of political offenses to be further detained
- “allowed police to detain without warrant a person suspected of a politically motivated crime for up to 90 days without a lawyer
What did the 1967 Terrorism Act do?
- s6 allowed someone suspected of involvement in terrorism to be detained for a 60 day period
What did the 1960 Unlawful Organisations Act do?
declared ANC and PAC illegal
RIVONIA TRIAL AND MANDELA
What was 4 charges Mandela tried for?
- attempting to commit sabotage
- links with communists orgs
- recruiting fighters
- soliciting money from foreign states
RIVONIA TRIAL AND MANDELA
What did 3 effects did the speech at the dock have?
- echoed down the years
- a major statement of political courage and hope
- sketched the disabilities that Africans suffered
RIVONIA TRIAL AND MANDELA
What did the white lawyers call for?
death penalty
RIVONIA TRIAL AND MANDELA
What were the negatives of the Rivonia Trial (it was NOT a political opportunity for the ANC)?
- split ANC between those who wanted to be violent and those who did not
- support from USSR ruined relationships with other countries such as USA
- lost many leaders
RIVONIA TRIAL AND MANDELA
What were the positives of the Rivonia Trial (it WAS a political opportunity for the ANC)?
- protests around the world
- ANC regrouped and reorganized in exile
- more publicity
- military training from USSR
- Joe Slovo continued to work with ANC in exile
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
What did Oliver Tambo do to salvage the movement? Why was this?
- went into exile in 1960
- to establish external mission
- to win international support
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
What was the effect of Tambo’s tireless travelling and sincerity? Give 2 examples
gave the ANC significant legitimacy in early years of exile
- spoke at the UN in NY (called for the leaders’ release)
- after a trip to the USSR, he secured funding for the movement
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
What were the few FREE members of the African political leadership doing in 1963?
- gone into exile
- accepted that open politics was too dangerous
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
What was one negative and one positive of having no leadership on the ground to organise the movements?
negative - stfiled much of the ANC’s and PAC’s activity
positive - but protests did not die down entirely
new currents of black opposition would surface in the next few years
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
What was a major effect of this exile and imprisonment (and Tambo’s visits) that furthered the cause against apartheid?
the global anti-apartheid movement in 1960s
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
Where was the AAM formally founded?
London, 1960
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
Who was one key individual from Britain? What did they do to help the GAAM?
Trevor Huddleston, a bishop and vic president of the GAAM from 1961, president from 1981:
- worked in Sophiatown
- witnessed its destruction
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
What did bishop Ambrose Reeves write so effectively about? Where was he from and what did he become in Johannesburg?
Sharpeville
From Britain
Became Bishop of Johannesburg from 1949
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
Who was E.D. Reddy? What did he do?
an Indian from UN in NY
highlighted apartheid in Secretary of Special Committee against Apartheid in 1963
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
What 4 governments housed important anti-apartheid movements?
Sweden
US
Canada
Netherlands
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
What British newspapers supported the economic boycott movement in 1959?
Guardian and Observer
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
Why was Britain so important in the GAAM?
it became the major destination for political dissidents
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
What influential party and ideology opposed aparthied?
Labour party
Liberal politicians
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
What were 2 key groups in the GAAM? Who set up the second one and what did it successfully do?
UN
South Africa Non-Racial Olympic Committee (formed in SA but had external supporters)
(Denis Brutus)
- successfully persuaded the Olympic movement to exclude South Africa from the 1964 games
IMPACT OF EXILE AND IMPRISONMENT ON PAC AND ANC
GLOBAL AAM
The GAAM and its allies played a key role in creasing pressure on international sporting bodies. Give 3 examples to support this statement.
- 1963 - FIFA excluded SA from international football
- South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee helped Olympic movement exclude SA was 1964 games
- SA all-black team to 1970 Football World Cup was rejected
