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Physiology > Sensory Physiology (Topic 9) > Flashcards

Sensory Physiology (Topic 9) Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two parts of a sensory pathway? (2)

A
  • sensory receptor
  • afferent neural pathway
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2
Q

What does a sensory recpetor do? (2)

A

receive stimuli for external or internal environment

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3
Q

What does the afferent neural pathway do? (2)

A

conducts information from the receptor to the CNS

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4
Q

What is sensory information? (2)

A

any stimuli detected by the body, regardless of awareness

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5
Q

What is sensation? (2)

A

sensory information that reaches consciousness
- Ex: temperature

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6
Q

What is perception? (2)

A

the awareness of a sensation or understanding of its meaning
- Can be affected by experience/emotions

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7
Q

What do sensory receptors generate? (3)

A

graded potentials (called receptor potentials) in response to a stimulus.

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8
Q

What are the 5 types of sensory receptors and the type of stimulus they respond to? (3)

A
  1. Mechanoreceptors: physical change
  2. Thermoreceptors: heat
  3. Photoreceptors: light
  4. Chemoreceptors: chemical
  5. Nociceptors: pain
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9
Q

What is a stimulus? (3)

A

energy or chemical that activates receptor

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10
Q

What is sensory transduction? (3)

A

transformation of environmental stimuli into electrical (neural response)

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11
Q

What are receptor cells missing? What do they still have? (4)

A
  • missing voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels
  • but has voltage-gated calcium channels
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12
Q

What kind of potential do receptor cells have? (4)

A

graded potentials only
(b/c no V-G Na+ and K+ channels)

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13
Q

What happens if positive ions flow into the cell? (4)

A

depolarization of the membrane

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14
Q

What does calcium do? (4)

A

stimulate SNARE proteins

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15
Q

Go over slide 4

A

mechanisms yay

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16
Q

Is touch one cell or two? (4)

A

one

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17
Q

Is taste one cell or two? (4)

A

two

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18
Q

Go over slide 5

A

so tired lol

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19
Q

How is the amount of neurotransmitter released affected by the strength of the stimulus? (5)

A

more is released with a greater stimulus

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20
Q

What is a sensory unit? (6)

A

single afferent neuron with its receptive terminals

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21
Q

What is the receptive field? (6)

A

area or volume monitored by a sensory unit
- Small field = high resolution

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22
Q

What is modality? (6)

A

stimulus type
- ex: taste

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23
Q

What is a sub modality? (6)

A

a subcategory of a type of stimulus
ex: salty, sweet, bitter, sour, umami

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24
Q

T/F Most receptors are specialized for a modality or sub modality? (6)

A

true

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25
Q

T/F Very strong stimuli may produce response on any receptor? Give an Example (6)

A

True
- getting hit in the head too hard and seeing flashes of lights (photoreceptors are responding instead cause it was so strong)

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26
Q

Do pain receptors detect modalities? If so how, if not what do they detect? (6)

A

Pain receptors don’t detect a single modality, they detect a strength of stimulus that might cause harm to the body

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27
Q

How do we distinguish a strong stimulus from a weak one? (7)

A

By stimulus intensity (stronger graded potential, causes for more action potentials)

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28
Q

What is recruitment? (7)

A

Stronger stimuli usually affect a larger area stimulating more receptors.

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29
Q

What are labeled lines? (8)

A

signals travel along distinct pathways from receptor to CNS

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30
Q

How do we determine the location of a stimulus? (8)

A

Through labeled lines`

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31
Q

How do we determine the location of a stimulus? (8)

A

Through labeled lines`

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32
Q

What is acuity? (8)

A

precision with which we distinguish multiple stimuli

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33
Q

What does acuity depend on? (8)

A
  • the size of the receptive field
  • amount of convergence (more convergence/less acuity)
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34
Q

Why are your lips more sensitive than your back? (8)

A
  • a single neuron covers a smaller area (small receptive field/higher acuity)
  • a single neuron covers a larger area (large receptive field/lower acuity)
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35
Q

Go over slide 9

A

mhm

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36
Q

What is the purpose of lateral inhibition? (10)

A

it is to increase acuity when you have overlapping receptive fields

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37
Q

What do neighbor receptors do to each other? (10)

A

inhibit each other

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38
Q

What does improving localization do to acuity? (10)

A

increases acuity

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39
Q

What do descending pathways do? (11)

A

inhibit sensory pathways

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39
Q

What do descending pathways do? (11)

A

inhibit sensory pathways

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40
Q

What are descending pathways composed of? (11)

A

interneurons

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41
Q

Where are descending pathways located? (11)

A

central nervous system

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42
Q

Examples of descending pathways (11)

A

pain pathways (Input is always inhibited to some degree)

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43
Q

Compare and contrast descending and efferent pathways (11)

A

Compare:
- both start at the CNS (brain) and travel away from it
Contrast:
- Descending never leaves the CNS to go to the PNS
- descending inhibits responses
- Efferent Moves from the CNS to the PNS
- Efferent targets an effector to make a response

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44
Q

T/F the sensory areas of the cortex have specific ascending pathways (12)

A

true

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45
Q

Ascending pathways of the cortex move where? (12)

A
  • Pass to brainstem & thalamus
  • Then to specific areas of cerebral cortex.
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46
Q

olfactory pathways bypass _____ and go directly to ____ _____ & _____ _____ (12)

A
  • thalamus
  • olfactory complex & limbic system
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47
Q

What does the Somatosensory cortex have? (12)

A

Information from somatic receptors – skin, skeletal muscle, tendons & joints

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48
Q

Where do most cortex pathways cross to? (12)

A

the opposite side of the brain

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49
Q

What are association areas? (12)

A
  • Site of complex integration
  • arousal, attention, memory, language
    Ex. Visual/Somatosensory
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50
Q

What are general senses? (13)

A
  • Touch and pressure
  • Sense of posture and movement
  • Temperature
  • Pain
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51
Q

What are somatic sensations? (13)

A

from the skin, muscles, bones, tendons and joints

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52
Q

What are visceral sensations? (13)

A

from the organs. Usually have few receptors

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53
Q

What are special senses? (13)

A
  • sight
  • smell
  • hearing
  • balance
  • taste
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54
Q

What type of receptors are touch and pressure receptors? (14)

A

mechanoreceptors
ex: hair bending, pressure, vibrations, touch

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55
Q

Characteristics of touch and pressure receptors (14)

A
  • Neuron ending are linked to a capsule containing collagen fibers (highly specialized)
  • Receptor fields vary:
    Small: provide precise information
    Large: may be whole finger or large part of palm. Signal info about skin stretch or joint movement
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56
Q

What type of receptors are posture and movement receptors? (15)

A
  • Muscle spindle stretch receptors
  • Mechanoreceptors in joints, tendons, ligament, skin
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57
Q

What plays a role in balance? (15)

A

vision and vestibular (balance) receptors

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58
Q

What is kinesthesia? (15)

A

sense of movement of a joint

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59
Q

What is proprioception? (15)

A

sense of posture

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60
Q

Characteristics of temperature receptors (16)

A
  • Small neurons with little of no myelination
  • Free nerve endings
  • Sensors are ion channels in the axon terminals
    • Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) proteins
  • Various TRPs that open at a range of temperatures.
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61
Q

What are pain receptors stimulated by? (17)

A

Free axon-terminal unmyelinated nociceptors stimulated by extreme deformation, temperature or chemicals associated with cell damage

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62
Q

What are pain receptors stimulated by? (17)

A

Free axon-terminal unmyelinated nociceptors stimulated by extreme deformation, temperature or chemicals associated with cell damage

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63
Q

How do opiates inhibit pain receptors? (17)

A
  • inhibits neurotransmitter release
  • antagonist to the pathway
  • causes hyperpolarization
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64
Q

What does endogenous vs exogenous mean? (17)

A
  • made by the body
  • taken into the body
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65
Q

How do opiates work? (17)

A

works by mimicking our naturally occurring neurotransmitters.

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66
Q

What is referred pain? (18)

A
  • Brain does not distinguish stimuli coming from visceral and somatic branches of the same spinal nerve.
  • Feel pain from an internal organ as another area of the surface of the body.
    -( ex: pain in left arm during a heart attack)
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67
Q

What is the anterolateral pathway? (19)

A
  • synapse occurs in the spinal chord
  • pain, temperature
68
Q

What is the dorsal column pathway? (19)

A
  • synapse occurs in the brainstem
  • touch, pressure, position, movement
69
Q

Characteristics of the somatosensory pathway (19)

A
  • Stimuli arrive to the cerebral cortex through at least 2 neurons
  • One synapse occurs in the thalamus
70
Q

Compare and contrast anterolateral and dorsal column pathway (19)

A

Similarities:
- both pathways for general senses that end in the somatosensory cortex
- 3 cells involved (neuron)
- 2 synapses (interneurons)
- Both start on the right side and end on the left side of the brain.
- both second synapse in the thalamus
- cross to other side of body after the first synapse
- both sensory pathways (afferent)

Differences:
- first synapse in different locations (ant.= in spinal cord/ dorsal.= in brainstem)
- ant.= pain and temp
- dorsal= touch, pressure, movement

71
Q

What modalities are processed in the somatosensory cortex? (20)

A
72
Q

Why does more of the somatosensory cortex focus on lips than your elbow? (20)

A
  • higher acuity
  • more labeled lines
  • more important to know what’s going to your mouth than elbow
73
Q

What are the two components of the eyes? (21)

A
  • an optical component
  • a neural component
74
Q

What does the optical component of the eye do? (21)

A

Focuses the visual image onto
the receptor cells

75
Q

What does the neural component of the eye do? (21)

A

Transforms visual image into a
patter of graded and action
potentials

76
Q

What type of energy is light? (21)

A

electromagnetic

77
Q

What defines color and what is it? (21)

A

wavelength: the distance from peak to peak

78
Q

What are the only wavelengths we can detect? (21)

A

Visible light (a range of the spectrum)

79
Q

What is the anatomy of the eye? (22)

A

three-layered fluid-filled ball
- sclera
- cornea
- choroid
- iris
- ciliary muscle and zonular fibers
- retina
- fluids

80
Q

What is the sclera? (22)

A

tough & white (opaque) provides structure & points for
muscle attachment

81
Q

What is the cornea? (22)

A

clear; lets the light enter

82
Q

What is the choroid? (22)

A

Dark, pigmented at the
back of the eye
* Absorbs “extra” light

83
Q

What is the iris? (22)

A
  • Gives eye color
  • Muscles of iris determine
    size of pupil
84
Q

What do the Ciliary muscle & Zonular fibers do? (22)

A

Work to together to alter shape of the lens

85
Q

What is the retina made of? (22)

A

Neurons & photoreceptors

86
Q

where is aqueous humor found? (23)

A

between iris and cornea

87
Q

where is vitreous humor found? (23)

A

jelly-like substance between lens & retina

88
Q

What are features of the retina? (23)

A

– Macula lutea -> area
free of blood vessels
– Fovea centralis -> pit
within the macula; high
density of cones for
visual acuity
– Optic disc -> neurons
exit the eye as the optic
nerve; no receptors in
this area

89
Q

What is refraction? (24)

A

When a light wave crosses
from air to a denser
medium (like your cornea
and lens), the wave bends.

90
Q

Where do light waves converge? (24)

A

on the retina

91
Q

Why is an image formed upside down and what does the brain do to correct it? (24)

A

Because of refraction, the image is formed upside down on the retina. The brain restores perception
to proper orientation.

92
Q

Objects in the center of the field of view are focused on what? (24)

A

fovea centralis

93
Q

Why is the shape of the lens changed? (25)

A

so that focus is on the retina

94
Q

in focus vs out of focus (muscles and lens) (25)

A

in focus (far):
- relaxed muscles, tension on fibers, flattened lens, light rays are nearly parallel

in focus (near):
contracted muscles, slackened fibers, rounded lens, near object with accommodation

out of focus:
- relaxed muscles, light rays from near object diverge

95
Q

What is presbyopia? (26)

A

lens loses elasticity

96
Q

What is a cataract? (26)

A

changes in lens color/opacity

97
Q

What is glaucoma? (26)

A

retinal cells are damaged due to increased
pressure

98
Q

What is myopia? (26)

A

Nearsighted = distant objects hard to see

99
Q

What is hyperopia? (26)

A

Farsighted = close objects hard to see

100
Q

What vision defects are common in older adults and those with health risks? (26)

A
  • presbyopia
  • cataracts
  • glaucoma
101
Q

What vision defects are common in people of all ages and are due to eye shape? (26)

A
  • myopia
  • hyperopia
  • astigmatism
102
Q

What are rods? (26)

A

photoreceptors that are extremely sensitive and work in low light

103
Q

What are cones? (26)

A

photoreceptors responsible for color and only work in bright light

104
Q

What does pigment epithelium and choroid do? (26)

A

absorbs the light that has passed the receptors

105
Q

Why is it important that the light in the back of your light gets absorbed? (26)

A

receptors would be constantly triggered and we wouldn’t be able to see

106
Q

Where are receptors located in the eye? (26)

A

back of the retina

107
Q

What do pigments do? (27)

A

absorb light

108
Q

What do photoreceptors contain? (27)

A

photopigments that absorb light

109
Q

What photopigments are in rods? (27)

A

rhodopsin

110
Q

What photopigments are in cones? (27)

A

3 unique photopigments

111
Q

What are photopigments composed of? (27)

A

membrane-bound proteins (opsin)

112
Q

What does opsin surround? (27)

A

a light-sensitive molecule called retinal

113
Q

Why is opsin more sensitive to a different portion of the spectrum? (27)

A

each opsin binds to retinal in a different way

114
Q

What is phototransduction? (28)

A

taking a light stimulus into an electrical signal

115
Q

What happens when you step from bright sunlight to a darkened room? Why?

A
116
Q

At rest (no light) what is the potential of the cell? (28)

A

depolarized (-35mV)

117
Q

In response to light, what is the potential of the cell? (28)

A

hyperpolarized (-70mV)

118
Q

Wat does guanylyl cyclase do? (28)

A

Takes GTP and turns it into cyclic GMP

119
Q

Why are photoreceptor cells generally depolarized? (28)

A

cGMP activates cation channels that bring in positive ions, making membrane potential more positive

120
Q

What does cGMP phosphodiesterase do? (28)

A

converts cGMP to GMP

121
Q

How does light hyperpolarize the cell? (28)

A
  • light strikes retinal
  • opsin changes and activates transducin
  • cGMP-phosphodiesterase activates and changes cGMP to GMP
  • cation channels close due to lack of cGMP
  • cell potential hyperpolarizes (-70mV)
122
Q

T/F when struck by light, a photoreceptor hyperpolarizes (28)

A

True

123
Q

What kind of potential do photoreceptors and bipolar cells have? (29)

A
  • only graded potentials b/c they do not have voltage-gated channels
124
Q

What cells are the first in the neural pathway with action potentials? (29)

A

ganglion cells

125
Q

What forms the optic nerve? (31)

A

the axons of ganglion

126
Q

What gives us binocular vision? (31)

A

2 optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm where some fibers cross

127
Q

What’s the advantage of binocular vision? (31)

A

depth perception

128
Q

What is sound? (32)

A

Energy transferred through a medium (gas, liquid, or solid) causes the molecules to vibrate

129
Q

Does sound occur in a vacuum? (32)

A

no, there are no particles to vibrate

130
Q

What is the zone of compression? (32)

A

where molecules are more dense

131
Q

What is the zone of rarefaction? (32)

A

where molecules are less dense

132
Q

What does amplitude affect? (32)

A

loudness

133
Q

What would make the sound of a tuning fork louder? (32)

A

the bigger the difference between the zone of compression and rarefaction, the tall your wave (higher the amplitude)
- (Difference in pressures between zones of compression and rarefaction)!!!

134
Q

What is sound measured in? (33)

A

decibels (dB)
- a logarithmic scale

135
Q

What determines pitch? (34)

A

the waves frequency
- (higher frequency = higher pitch)

136
Q

What is frequency measured in? (34)

A

hertz (Hz; cycles/second)

137
Q

What is the range of human hearing? (34)

A

20-20,000 Hz

138
Q

What are the steps of sound transmission? (35)

A

1- entrance of sounds wave into external auditory canal
2- transmission from tympanic membrane through the middle ear to the cochlea (inner ear)
3- membrane of oval window moves
4- movement of basilar membrane

139
Q

What transfers the vibrations to the oval window, the membrane-covered opening of the scala vestibuli? (36)

A

three bones

140
Q

What is the cochlea? (37)

A

spiral-shaped, fluid-filled space in temporal bone

141
Q

What is the cochlear duct? (37)

A

membranous tube filled w/ endolymph

142
Q

On either side of the duct, compartments are filled with ___ (37)

A

perilymph

143
Q

What causes the basilar membrane to vibrate? (37)

A

pressure differences

144
Q

What are the organs of corti? (40)

A
  • sit on the basilar membrane
  • contain hair cells (mechanoreceptors)
  • embedded in the endolymph
145
Q

What is the cranial nerve made of? (40)

A

Axons of afferent neurons join to form a branch

146
Q

How are sounds of different pitches distinguished? (41)

A

waves with different frequencies stimulate the basilar membrane at different places; activating different hair cells (diff. hair cells= diff. labeled lines = diff. places in cortex)

147
Q

How are sounds of different loudness distinguished? (41)

A

stereocilia bend more
- if bent more -> more potassium goes in -> more graded depolarization -> more NT released -> more graded in afferent neuron -> more action potentials
(higher amplitude = more action potentials)

148
Q

What are the ear hair cells called? (41)

A

stereocilia

149
Q

What happens when stereocilia bend? (41)

A

potassium channels open and flow IN to the cell

150
Q

What is the vestibular apparatus? (42)

A

Connected series of endolymph-filled membranous tubes

151
Q

What are the components of the vestibular system? (42)

A
  • 3 semicircular canals
  • Utricle
  • Saccule
152
Q

What are the receptors of the vestibular system? (42)

A

hair cells

153
Q

What detects rotation of the head along three axes? (43)

A

three semicircular canals

154
Q

What are the receptors of the semicircular canals? (43)

A
  • Receptor cells have stereocilia encapsulated in the cupula
  • cupula bends -> bends the stereocilia
    (fluid pressure causes bending of the hair)
155
Q

What provides information about linear acceleration
(up & down; back & forth)? (45)

A

utricle and saccule

156
Q

What are hair cells covered in? (45)

A

gelatinous material embedded with calcium carbonate crystals

157
Q

What does the utricle respond to? (45)

A

Hair cell stand upright
- Respond to bending (tipping your head) or horizontal accelerations

158
Q

What does the saccule respond to? (45)

A

Hair cells stand at right angles
- Respond to moving from lying to standing and vertical accelerations

159
Q

Where are taste buds found? (46)

A

the walls of the lingual papillae

160
Q

What are the basic types of taste receptors? (46)

A

sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami

161
Q

Where do olfactory receptor neurons lie? (47)

A

lie in the olfactory epithelium, in the upper part of the nasal cavity

162
Q

Where must odorants pass in order to be detected? (47)

A

must pass through the air and dissolve into the mucus layer to be detected.

163
Q

What do olfactory receptors have? (48)

A

one enlarged dendrite with nonmotile cilia.

164
Q

What do the cilia of olfactory receptors contain? (48)

A

The cilia contain the receptor proteins that provide the binding sites for odor molecules.

165
Q

How many types of odorant receptors does each cell have? (48)

A

only one

166
Q

How many types of odorant receptors do humans have? (48)

A

about 400

167
Q

What forms the olfactory nerve? (48)

A

The axons of the neurons form the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve)

Physiology (15 decks)

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