Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Psychology > Schizophrenia L1-3 > Flashcards

Schizophrenia L1-3 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards AP® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

What is schizophrenia?

A
  • serious mental psychotic disorder
  • characterised by profound disruption of cognition and emotion
  • onset between 15 and 45 years
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What does schizo affect?

A
  • language
  • thought
  • perception
  • emotions
  • sense of self
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

It is more commonly diagnosed in?

A
  • men than women
  • cities rather than countryside
  • working class than middle class people
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Why is schizo referred to as a psychotic disorder rather than a neurotic disorder?

A
  • psychotic refers to mental issues causing abnormal thinking and perceptions
  • people lose touch with reality and themselves
  • can end up homeless or hospitalised
  • also not uncommon for them to attempt/commit suicide
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What classification systems are used to diagnose schizo?

A
  • DSM 5, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders
  • ICD 11, The International Classification of Diseases
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

DSM

A
  • devised by APA, American Psychological Association
  • in 5th edition
  • used in America
  • for diagnosis of schizo need to show at least 2 or more positive symptoms for one month period
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

ICD

A
  • devise by WHO, World Health Organisation
  • in 11th edition
  • used in Europe and other parts of the world
  • need to show one positive and one negative symptom for at least one month for schizo diagnosis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What was done with subtypes of schizo?

A
  • both manuals recognised but deleted
  • made diagnosis more complex and had little effect on treatment
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What are the types of Schizophrenia?

A
  • Crow made distinction between 2 types
  • Type 1 and Type 2
  • Type 1, characterised by positive symptoms, better prospects for recovery
  • Type 2, characterised by negative symptoms, poorer prospects for recovery
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What type of symptoms are there?

A
  • positive, symptoms that reflect an excess or distortion of normal functions
  • negative, symptoms that appear to reflect a reduction or loss of normal functions, often persist even during low/absent levels of positive symptoms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What are the positive symptoms?

A
  • hallucinations
  • delusions
  • disorganised speech
  • grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are hallucinations, +s?

A
  • sensory experiences of stimuli that have no basis of reality or are distorted perceptions of things that are there
  • can be auditory, visual, olfactory (hearing) or tactile (touch+feeling)
    Auditory - hearing voices, making comments or conversing with them, normally criticising them
    Visual - seeing things that are not real e.g. distorted facial expressions on people
    Olfactory - smelling things not real e.g. smelling disinfectant
    Tactile - touching things not real e.g. bugs crawling on skin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are delusions, +s?

A
  • aka paranoia
  • irrational, bizzare beliefs that seem real to the individual with SZ
  • can take range of forms
  • common delusions involves being important historical/political figure like Jesus
  • or belief that they will be persecuted by gov/aliens
  • delusions may involve body, believe parts of them under external control
  • some can lead to aggression, but this is not often
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is disorganised speech, +s?

A
  • result of abnormal thought processes
  • problems with organising their thoughts which shows in their speech
  • may slip from one topic to another, derailment, could occur mid sentence as well
  • speech may be so inconsistent that it comes across as gibberish, referred to as ‘word salad’
    (symptom diagnosed in DSM but not ICD, extra symptom)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour, +s?

A
  • catatonia refers to abnormality of movement and behaviour arising from a disturbed mental state
  • inability or lack of motivation to complete or initiate a task
  • can lead to problems with hygiene or person may be over active and going many things simultaneously
  • person may dress in bizarre way, winter clothes in summer
    (symptom diagnosed in DSM but not ICD, extra symptom)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are the negative symptoms?

A
  • speech poverty, alogia
  • avolition
  • affective flattening
  • anhedonia
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What is speech poverty/alogia, -s?

A
  • changes in patterns of speech
  • reduction in the amount and quality of speech
  • may be accompanied by delay in verbal responses during convo
  • may also be reflected in less complex syntax/sentence structuring
  • associated with long illness and earlier onset
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is avolition, -s?

A
  • can sometimes be called apathy
  • described as finding it difficult to begin or keep up with a goal directed activity
  • sufferers often have sharply reduced motivation to carry out a range of activities
  • Andreason identified these signs of avolition: poor hygiene/grooming, lack of persistence in work/education and lack of energy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is affective flattening, -s?

A
  • reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression
  • including facial expression, voice tone, eye contact and body language
  • sufferers have fewer body and facial movements and smiles
  • less co-verbal behaviour
  • when speaking may show a deficit in prosody (tone, tempo, loudness etc) which give cues to emotional content of convo
    (symptom diagnosed in DSM but not ICD, extra symptom)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is anhedonia, -s?

A
  • loss of interest/pleasure in all or most activities
  • or lack of reactivity to normally pleasurable stimuli
  • physical anhedonia is inability to experience physical pleasures like pleasure from food, bodily contact etc.
  • social anhedonia is inability to gain pleasure from interpersonal situations like interacting with people
    (symptom diagnosed in DSM but not ICD, extra symptom)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are the issues with the classification and diagnosis of SZ?

A
  • reliability, consistency of measuring instrument
  • validity, measuring what you mean to measure
  • co-morbidity
  • symptom overlap
  • gender bias
  • cultural bias
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Issue of reliability, inter rater?

A

When 2 or more diagnosticians agree with the same diagnosis for the same individual, diagnosis done separately
- Whaley found inter rater between diagnosticians as low as +0.11 (DSM use)
= Cheniaux et al, more recent also showed low inter rater
= had 2 psychiatrists independently diagnose 100 schizo patients using ICD and DSM criteria
= inter rater poor, one diagnosed 26 with DSM and 44 with ICD
= other diagnosed 13 with DSM and 24 with ICD
So poor reliability is weakness of SZ

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Issue of reliability, test retest?

A

When clinician makes same diagnosis on separate occasions but from same information
- Read et al, test retest reliability of SZ diagnosis only have 37% concordance rate
- (diff study) also noted a 1970 study where 194 Brit and 134 US psychiatrists provided diagnosis on basis of case description
- 2% of Brit diagnosed whilst 69% of US did
Suggests diagnosis has never been reliable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Upside of reliability?

A
  • very recent study, 2019, testing reliability in SZ diagnosis with DSM5 very high
  • Flavia Osario et al, inter rater between pairs of psychiatrists +0.97 and test retest +0.92
  • both figures show most recent diagnosis of SZ using DSM very good and reliable
25
Q

Issue of validity, criterion validity?

A

Extent to which we measure what we intend to measure
Criterion = when different assessment systems arrive at same diagnosis for same patient
- according to Cheniaux et al study, SZ more likely to be diagnosed with ICD than DSM
- SZ either over diagnosed with ICD or under with DSM
Sign of poor validity
= Cheniaux et al, showed low inter rater
= had 2 psychiatrists independently diagnose 100 schizo patients using ICD and DSM criteria
= inter rater poor, one diagnosed 26 with DSM and 44 with ICD
= other diagnosed 13 with DSM and 24 with ICD

26
Q

Issue of validity, Rosenhan?

A
  • research known as ‘on being sane in insane places’
  • aimed to test validity of SZ diagnosis using DSM (2 at the time)
  • 8 vol who did not suffer mental illness went to different mental hospital
  • claimed to hear voices like ‘hollow, empty, thud’
  • all admitted in and acted normally
  • time taken for release and reactions to them recorded
  • 8 vol took between 7 and 52 days to be released as schizos in remission
  • norm behaviours seen as SZ
  • 35 of 118 patients suspected volunteers were sane
    = later hospital told that unspecified number of pseudo patients would attempt entry of 3 month period
    = no. of suspected imposters was recorded
    = 193 admitted, 83 thought to be imposters but no actual imposters attempted admission
    Highlights lack of validity, psychiatrists clearly unable to distinguish between real and pseudo patients
27
Q

Issue of validity, B+J?

A
  • more recent study by Birchwoord and Jackson
  • 20% of patients show full recovery and never have another SZ episode
  • 10% show sig improvement
  • 30% show some improvement
  • 40% never really recover
  • of that 40%, 10% so affected they commit suicide
    Great variation in prognosis suggests very poor predictive validity
28
Q

Upside of validity?

A
  • recent Osario study suggests since reliability so high with DSM, validity also high with this individual diagnosing system
  • suggests ICD needs more revision
29
Q

Issue of co-morbidity?

A

Idea that 2 or more mental disorders occur together at the same time with the same person
Can question validity of diagnosis for SZ
= Buckley et al, found around half patients with SZ have depression (50%) or substance abuse (47%)
= PTSD also in 29% of cases and OCD in 23% of cases
- issue as if half diagnosed with depression and SZ suggests inability to distinguish between both disorders
- may be that severe d looks like SZ or vice versa, or may be seen as a single condition

30
Q

Issue of symptom overlap?

A

Considerable overlap between symptoms of SZ and other conditions like D and BP
One may show symptom of SZ but may also be symptom of another
- Ellason and Ross found those with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) have more SZ symptoms than one with SZ
= Read, most with SZ have sufficient symptoms to also be diagnosed with another disorder
- overlap questions validity
- whilst under ICD one may be diagnosed with SZ but when under DSM same person may be diagnosed with BP instead
- overlap suggests that SZ and BP may be one disorder rather than separate

31
Q

Issue of gender bias?

A

One gender being diagnosed more/less than the other
- Fischer + Buchanan, since 1980’s men diagnosed with SZ more commonly
= possible explanation by Cotton, female patients appear to be more able to continue in work and have good family relationships
= less likely diagnosis for women may be due to women showing better interpersonal functioning
So seems to be gender bias in SZ with male heavy diagnosis’

32
Q

Issue of cultural bias?

A

One culture being diagnosed more/less than another
- Pinto + Jones, African American and English people of afro carribean origin are 9 times as likely to be diagnosed
- may be because +s like auditory hallucinations may be acceptable in Africa due to cultural beliefs in communication with ancestors, would not be deemed as worthy of diagnosis in Africa
- but in UK more likely to be seen as +s of SZ
= Escobar, or could be that in Western cultures, honesty of black people is doubted

33
Q

Advantages of classification + diagnosis?

A

= Communication shorthand
- patient often experiences multiple symptoms
- easier to incorporate symptoms into an individual diagnosis
- makes communication between mental health professionals easier
= Treatment
- are often specific to certain disorders
- reliable diagnosis can point to a therapy that will help alleviate symptoms
= despite variation, there are many underlying biological abnormalities in those with SZ
= hoped that deeper understanding of these abnormalities will lead to more effective treatment

34
Q

What are the biological explanations of SZ?

A
  • the genetic basis
  • neural correlates, including the dopamine hypothesis
35
Q

How are genetic factors usually tested, BE?

A
  • through family, twin and adoption studies
36
Q

What are family studies, GB?

A
  • find individuals who have SZ
  • determine whether their biological relatives are similarly affected more often than non biological relatives
  • family studies shown that closer the genetic relatedness, greater the risk
    = Gottesman, if both parents with SZ, then offspring having is 46%
    = if one parent has, drops to 13%
    = if a sibling has, 9%
    Shows closer you are genetically related the more likely you are to get SZ
37
Q

What are twin studies, GB?

A
  • chance to investigate nature/nurture
  • see contribution of heredity and environmental influences in having SZ
  • as MZ share 100% while DZ share 50%, if SZ genetic then concordance rates should be much higher for MZ than DZ
    = Gottesman, 48% concordance for MZ and 17% for DZ, shows more genetically similar leads to more likely SZ
  • Joseph, review of twin studies carried up to 2001
  • found overall concordance rate 40% MZ twins but DZ 7.4%
  • concordance still quite high for MZ so supports idea of role genes in SZ
38
Q

What are adoption studies, GB?

A
  • carried out to understand the influence of nature and nurture
  • difficult to separate genetics from env in twin+family studies
  • adoption studies researched to see nature/nurture influences when MZ twins my be reared apart or offspring of SZ parents are adopted
    = Tienari et al, study in Finland
    = adoptees with bio mum with SZ more likely to develop than those with mum w/o SZ
    = 164 adoptees with bio mum with SZ 6.7% also had SZ
    = control group of 197 adoptees with mum w/o SZ only 2% with SZ
    Shows role of biology, those with SZ bio mum more likely to develop despite different env due to adoption
39
Q

What are candidate genes, GB?

A
  • specific genes that seem to be associated with SZ
  • is now agreed that SZ is polygenic
  • combo of different genes that have been linked to SZ
40
Q

Candidate genes of SZ evidence, GB?

A
  • Gurling et al, evidence from fam studies
  • found SZ associated w chromosome 8p21-22 to identify high risk sample
  • through gene mapping, found PCM1 gene found in susceptibility to SZ so more evidence for genetics
    = Benzel et al, suggests interaction of genetic factors
    = gene mapping to find evidence suggesting NRG3 gene variants interact with NRG1 and ERBB4 gene variants
    = create susceptibility to developing SZ
  • Ripke et al, compared gen makeup of 37k SZ patients worldwide with 113000 controls
  • found 108 separate genetic variations associated with an increased risk of SZ
  • genes particularly vulnerable, ones with a connection to the functioning of certain neurotransmitters such as dopamine
41
Q

Genetic basis, BE +ve?

A
  • lots of research evidence to support
  • findings from Joseph, Gottesman and Tienari showing link between genes and SZ
  • strength as shows that child growing up with 2 parents with SZ will be more likely to have SZ compared to those with only one SZ parent or with no SZ parent
42
Q

Genetic basis, BE -ve?

A
  • issue studies is separating nature (genes) from nurture (env)
  • MZ twins normally reared together so difficult to separate upbringing from genes
  • even with adopt as tend to be adopted by relatives who may rear in similar way to bio parents
  • so adopt may not be good comparison for effects of nature and nurture
    = SZ can take place in absence of family history
    = explanation is may be mutation in parental DNA like sperm
    = can be caused by radiation, poison or infection
    = Brown et al, evidence, showed +ve correlation between paternal age and increased SZ risk
    = around 0.7% with dad under 25, 2% in dad over 50
    = suggests despite no direct gene involved, can still get if dad is older at time of fertilisation
    = suggests role of nature and nurture play a role, not just genes
  • biologically reductionist, states on because of SZ is simply your genes
  • e.g. insinuates if you have PCM1 gene you will have SZ
  • is ignoring other factors like psychological factors and family upbringing which can be important
  • e.g. found that certain parenting methods can trigger SZ
    = diathesis stress model states there is a genetic vulnerability in SZ
    = but only likely to be triggered with a stress trigger in ones life
    = so may be born with a gene making you vulnerable but if life fairly stress free, then may be safe of the disorder
    = so need to be cautious when looking at genetic factors as may not act alone to trigger SZ
    = more holistic perspective to understanding causes of SZ may lead to more effective treatments instead of gene focus
43
Q

What are neural correlates, BE?

A
  • patterns of structure or activity in the brain that occur with an experience
  • may be connected to origins of that experience
44
Q

What is the dopamine hypothesis, NC, BE?

A
  • claims that an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine in certain regions of the brain is associated with positive symptoms of SZ
  • so messages from neurons that release dopamine fire too easily and often, leading to hallucinations and delusions
  • Schizos thought to have high levels of D2 receptors on receiving neurons so more dopamine binding and more neurons firing
45
Q

What is dopamine, NC, BE?

A
  • neurotransmitter in the brain
  • helps regulate movement, attention, learning and emotional response
  • also involved in reward, motivation
  • due to contribution to feelings of pleasure as part of reward system plays a part in addiction
46
Q

What are the consequences of the dopamine hypothesis, NC, BE?

A

Hyperdopaminergia in the sub cortex
- based on go version of dh in explaining SZ
- states there are high levels of activity of dopamine in area known as subcortex (central areas of brain)
- e.g. excess in Brocas area (responsible for speech) may cause problems in speech and/or auditory hallucinations
Hypodopaminergia in the cortex
- recent version of dh has focus on lower levels of dopamine in cortex
- can also explain symptoms
- low levels in prefrontal cortex (thinking) explaining -ve symptom like speech poverty
- low levels of d leading to inability to form grammatically correct sentences
= has also been suggested cortical hypodopaminergia leads to subcortical hyperdopaminergia
= so high and low levels in different brain regions part of updated version to explain SZ symptoms

47
Q

Dopamine hypothesis, NC, BE +ve?

A
  • evidence from drug research
  • dopamine agonists like amphetamines tend to increase dopamine levels and worsen SZ symptoms in sufferers and can produce SZ like symptoms in non sufferers
    = antipsychotic drugs act like antagonists, acting to reduce levels of dopamine in schizo patients
    = supports idea that d levels are high and can be reduced with drugs
  • Lindstroem et al, found chemicals needed to produce d taken up faster in brain of schizos than controls
  • suggesting schizos produce more d
    Range of evidence suggests dh is relevant is understanding SZ
48
Q

Dopamine hypothesis, NC, BE -ve?

A
  • biologically determinist, suggests individual has no control over this
  • dh cannot be seen as sole cause since there are other psychological, biological and cognitive factors
  • others could instead explain hallucinations and delusions
    = glutamate may be another explanation, may be involved
    = is another type of neurotransmitter, makes neruons more active and speeds communication
  • correlation causation issue
  • important questions left unanswered, SZ caused by high or low levels of d??, could be other explanations for correlation
  • correlation between high levels of d and experiencing SZ symptoms but does high d lead to SZ or other way
  • does not really explain cause and effect
49
Q

What are the psychological explanations for SZ?

A
  • family dysfunction
  • cognitive explanations
50
Q

What is meant by family dysfunction, PE?

A
  • attempt to link SZ to childhood and adult experiences of living in a dysfunctional family
  • explained in 3 ways:
    1. the schizophrenogenic mother
    2. double bind theory
    3. expressed emotion and SZ
51
Q

What is meant by the schizophrenogenic mother, FD PE?

A
  • Fromm-Reichmann gave a psychodynamic explanation based on accounts from patients about their childhood
  • noted many spoke about particular type of parent referred to as TSM
  • schizophrenogenic means SZ causing
  • characteristics of this type of mother: cold, rejecting, controlling, creates family climate of secrecy+tension
  • leads to the child having lack of trust in relationships which later develop into paranoid delusions then SZ
  • in these type of families, father is often passive and uninvolved in childs upbringing
52
Q

What is meant by the double bind theory, FD PE?

A
  • Bateson et al, agreed family climate important in SZ development
  • focussed more on actual family communication style
  • suggests that occurs in children who often receive contradictory messages from their parents
  • children feel trapped in situations, fear doing the wrong thing but are unsure about what the wrong/right thing to do is
  • mixed message e.g. mother says ily with disgusted expression
  • results in child being unable to comment on unfairness of situation or seek clarification
  • so when child gets smt wrong, is punished with withdrawal of love
  • child feels confused and sees world as dangerous place, reflected in SZ with symptoms like paranoid delusions
  • Bateson clarified this was a risk factor and not the only cause
53
Q

What is meant by expressed emotion, FD PE?

A
  • is the level of emotion, -ve in particular, expressed towards patients by carers usually parents
    Has several parts:
    1. verbal criticism, occasionally shown with violence
    2. hostility towards the patient, including anger and rejection
    3. emotional over involvement in patients life, including needless sacrifice
  • high levels of EE by carers of ps creates serious source of stress
  • may be reason for p to relapse
  • EE can also be the trigger for the onset of SZ especially if person had genetic vulnerability to SZ (diathesis stress model)
54
Q

Family dysfunction, PE +ve?

A
  • Tienari et al adoption study
  • adopted who had SZ bio parents more likely to have than those without
  • difference only emerged when adopted family seen as disturbed/’dysfunctional’
  • illness manifested under certain env conditions
  • genetic vun alone not sufficient, shows fd contributing factor to SZ
    = Read et al, reviewed 46 studies of child abuse and SZ
    = 69% of adult women patients had a history of physical abuse, sexual abuse or both in childhood
    = for men figure was 59%
    = shows that fd contributes to SZ development
    = also found adults who had insecure attachments to primary caregiver more likely to develop SZ
  • Bateson supports double bind theory
  • reported on cs with recovering SZ patient visited by mother in hospital
  • he embraced but she stiffened so he withdrew, she said ‘don’t you love me anymore?’, he blushed and she said he mustn’t be so easily embarrassed and afraid of his feelings
  • when she left he assaulted an aide and had to be restrained
  • supports double bind, clear mum giving mixed signals to son during youth leading to outburst to aide
    = evidence for EE, Kavanagh reviewed 26 studies of EE
    = found mean relapse rate for SZ who returned home to live with high EE fam was 48% compared to 21% for those with low EE fam
    = shows EE increases risk of relapse for recovering SZ
55
Q

What is meant by cognitive explanations, PE?

A
  • focus on role of mental processes
  • SZ associated with several types of dysfunctional thought processing
  • so provide explanations for SZ as a whole
    Frith et al identified 2 kinds of dysfunctional thought processing that can underlie some symptoms:
    1. metarepresentation
    2. central control
56
Q

What is meant by metarepresentation, CE PE?

A
  • cognitive ability to reflect on thoughts and behaviours
  • enables us an insight into our own intentions and goals
  • also allows us to interpret actions of others
  • dysfunction would disrupt ability to recognise actions and thoughts as being our own rather than someone elses
  • could explain auditory hallucinations and delusions
  • like thought insertions where you believe someone is putting thoughts into your head
57
Q

What is meant by central control, CE PE?

A
  • cognitive ability to suppress automatic responses while we perform other actions instead
  • speech poverty + thought disorder may be due to inability to ignore your own automatic thoughts
  • as well as what others may be saying to you in your head
  • SZ sufferers tend to experience derailment of their thoughts and what they say due to too much going on in their thought processes
  • leads to loss of control of their own thoughts
58
Q

Cognitive explanations, PE +ve?

A
  • Stirling et al, compared 30 SZ with 18 non patients on range of cognitive tasks
  • like stroop effect (colour word in diff colour, need to say colour and not read)
  • found SZ took 2x longer to say word than controls
  • shows dysfunctional thought processing in SZ as struggling to separate word from actual colour
    = success of CBT alongside drugs to treat
    = SZ thought disorder so cannot be fully treated by drugs
    = CBT can question and challenge hallucinations and delusions
    = can also use behavioural techniques like +ve reinforcement
    = CBT proven to be effective so further supports CE of SZ
59
Q

Cognitive explanations, PE -ve?

A
  • difficult to establish whether dysfunctional thought processing is cause or consequence of SZ
  • ambiguous cause and effect, careful consideration required
    = problematic as fails to take into account biological factors
    = does not acknowledge that dysfunctional thought processing may also be due to abnormal dopamine levels in brain
    = explanation therefore reductionist as simplifies SZ to very basic element of dysfunctional thoughts
    = does not consider genes, neurotransmitters and stress which have all been shown to contribute to SZ

Psychology (30 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions