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Psychology > Research Methods (L1-4) > Flashcards

Research Methods (L1-4) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the different variables (4)?

A
  • independent
  • dependent
  • extraneous
  • confounding
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2
Q

What is the independent variable?

A
  • variable that the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the dependent variable
  • IV may be divided into levels, sometimes referred to as experimental conditions
  • provides a standard against which experimental conditions can be compared
  • may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all
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3
Q

What is the dependant variable?

A
  • variable that is being measured
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4
Q

What is operationalisation and which variables should be operationalised?

A
  • operationalisation is defining the variables in such a way as to make them measurable
  • IV and the DV should be operationalised
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5
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A
  • any variables (other than the IV) that COULD affect the DV
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6
Q

What are confounding variables?

A
  • any variables (other than the IV) that HAVE affected the DV
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7
Q

What type of experiments are there (4)?

A
  • laboratory
  • field
  • natural
  • quasi
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8
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A
  • carried out in a controlled env allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the IV and eliminate any EV
  • researcher can then measure the change in the DV caused by their manipulation of the IV
  • Ps are randomly allocated to a condition
  • means neither the experimenter nor the participant decides which condition the participant is
    placed in
  • unpredictable method (such as flipping a coin or drawing names out of a hat) is used to decide
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9
Q

Lab experiment +ve:

A
  • high level of control possible in a laboratory means that it is easy to
    control for any EV and prevent them from becoming CV
    = researcher can manipulate the IV so they can establish a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV
  • well-controlled lab experiment can be easily replicated (conducted
    again) by other researchers to see if similar results can be obtained
  • if the findings are similar to the original study then the results are reliable (the study can be conducted repeatedly with the same results being found each time which
    means the results are not due to chance or confounding variables)
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10
Q

Lab experiment -ve:

A
  • a strong chance of demand characteristics with a lab experiment this is a type of EV where participants guess what the experiment is about and so alter their behaviour
    = establishing a high level of control over the IV and EV the experimental
    situation can lack mundane realism (the extent to which an experiment reflects real life)
    = means the study does not have ecological validity (the ability to
    generalise the findings of research to the real world)
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11
Q

What is a field experiment?

A
  • carried out in the real world
  • IV is manipulated by the researcher to see the effect on the DV
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12
Q

Field experiment +ve:

A
  • more mundane realism and ecological validity than in a lab
    = researcher can manipulate the IV a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV can be established
  • less chance of demand characteristics because in a field
    experiment the participants might not even be aware that they are taking part in research
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13
Q

Field experiment -ve:

A
  • much less control over EV and so the effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by these EV
  • means the research is not valid (it is
    not measuring what it intends to measure)
    = less control over the sample (this is who is taking part in the experiment)
  • may be far more difficult to replicate
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14
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A
  • when the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring
    IV to see its effect on the DV
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15
Q

Natural experiment +ve:

A
  • a high level of mundane realism and ecological validity
    = very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV/sample in a laboratory experiment or field experiment
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16
Q

Natural experiment -ve:

A
  • less control over EV
    = difficult to replicate
  • far more difficult to determine cause and effect
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17
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A
  • contain a naturally occurring IV
  • however, in a quasi experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender or age)
  • the researcher examines the effect of this variable on the DV
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18
Q

Quasi experiment +ve:

A
  • high level of control, effects of EV are minimised so more confidence about IV affecting the DV
    = replication is very easy, strict controls means it is easier to replicate the study to test reliability of findings
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19
Q

Quasi experiment -ve:

A
  • lack of ecological validity as the setting is artificial so experiments may not be a reflection of irl behaviour
    = demand characteristics may be an issue as they may accurately/inaccurately guess aim and respond according
    = may then affect data collected and results of the study
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20
Q

What is an observation?

A
  • when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that is being studied
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21
Q

What are the types of observations?

A
  • non participant
  • participant
  • covert
  • overt
  • naturalistic
  • controlled
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22
Q

What is a non participant observation?

A
  • when the researcher does not get
    directly involved with the interactions of the participants
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23
Q

What is a participant observation?

A
  • when the researcher is directly
    involved with the interactions of the participants
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24
Q

What is a covert observation?

A
  • psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity,
  • they may even give himself or herself a new identity
  • the group does not know that they are being observed
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25
Q

What is an overt observation?

A
  • researcher watches and records the behaviour of a group that knows it is being observed by a psychologist
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26
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A
  • researcher observes participants in their own environment
  • there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable (IV)
27
Q

Naturalistic observation +ve:

A
  • Ps usually unaware that they are being observed (covert
    observation) so there is a reduced chance of observer effects
  • observer effects occur when ps change their behaviour as they know they are being observed, so the results are not valid
    = have high mundane realism and ecological
    validity
  • useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical
28
Q

Naturalistic observation -ve:

A
  • impossible to have any control over extraneous variables (EV)
    = problematic to try to determine cause and effect
  • risk of observer bias, occurs when the observers know the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations
29
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A
  • researcher observes participants in a controlled environment and this
    allows for manipulation of the IV
30
Q

Controlled observation +ve:

A
  • cause and effect can be determined
    = EV can be controlled for
31
Q

Controlled observation -ve:

A
  • lower mundane realism and ecological validity
    = observer effects could occur as ps usually know they are being observed (overt observation)
  • risk of observer bias.
32
Q

What are operationalised behavioural categories?

A
  • the specific and observable
    behaviours to be recorded during an observation
  • these behavioural categories represent the more general construct under investigation
  • e.g. if the general construct was ‘riding a bike with care’, the
    operationalised behavioural categories could be ‘using cycle lanes’, ‘passing a pedestrian at a distance of at least one metre’ or ‘using a bicycle bell’
33
Q

What do behavioural categories do?

A
  • allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings
  • provide a clear focus for the researcher
  • enable the proposal of a testable hypothesis
  • allow for a more objective/scientific data recording
  • provide data that is easier to quantify/analyse
  • should result in greater reliability
34
Q

What is observer bias?

A
  • occurs when the observer knows the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations
35
Q

How can observer bias be avoided?

A
  • inter-observer reliability
  • intra-observer reliability
36
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A
  • using two observers who agree
    beforehand on their interpretation of the behavioural categories
  • each observer then observes the participants at the same time, but records
    their observations independently
  • their recordings will then be
    correlated using an appropriate statistical test to ascertain their level of
    agreement
  • if the two observers agree then the study has inter-observer reliability
37
Q

What is intra-observer reliability?

A
  • when an observation is video recorded so that it can be watched several times
38
Q

What is event sampling?

A
  • recording every time a certain behaviour (or event) occurs in a target individual or individuals
  • e.g. counting how many times a person smiles
39
Q

What is time sampling?

A
  • recording all behaviours within a given time frame
  • e.g. noting what a student is doing in a lesson every 30 seconds
40
Q

What is self report?

A
  • when participants provide details of their own feelings, thoughts and/or behaviour to the researcher
41
Q

What are interviews?

A
  • involve researchers asking questions in face-to-face situations
42
Q

What types of interviews are there?

A
  • structured
  • unstructured
  • semi structured
43
Q

What is a structured interview?

A
  • all participants are asked the same questions in the same order
  • provides quantitative data, which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically
44
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A
  • informal in-depth conversational exchange
    between the interviewer and interviewee
  • provides qualitative data, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think/feel
45
Q

What is a semi structured interview?

A
  • this type of interview combines a mixture
    of structured and unstructured techniques (quantitative and qualitative data)
46
Q

Interviews +ve:

A
  • complicated or sensitive issues are best dealt with in an interview
    = if ps misunderstand a question this can be clarified
47
Q

Interviews -ve:

A
  • risk of interviewer effects (when the interviewer may inadvertently affect respondent’s answers)
  • this can be unintentional and
    may even be a result of the interviewer’s appearance, manner or gender
    = there is also a risk of social desirability bias
    = this is when people lie to present themselves in a positive light (particularly when discussing
    issues that may be socially sensitive)
    = would mean the data lacks validity
  • training is needed for interviewers and the
    process can be time consuming and expensive
48
Q

What are questionnaires?

A
  • Ps are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers - mainly focus on the individual’s behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes
49
Q

What are closed questions?

A
  • require participants to choose from
    fixed responses (quantitative data)
  • researchers are able to collate and
    display the information collected easily
  • closed questions make it easy to
    compare specific response to questions the researchers wanted answered
    – they can be sure there will be certain information because they have
    restricted the options to include that information
50
Q

What are open questions?

A
  • allow the participant to answer in their
    own words (qualitative data)
  • open questions allow respondents to
    interpret the question as they wish to and develop their response with
    detail or depth – so there is lots of information received
  • open questions allow the researchers to pursue a line of enquiry that they may not have
    predicted but which comes to light because of a response by an interviewee
51
Q

Questionnaires +ve:

A
  • possible to collect a large amount of data relatively quickly and conveniently
    = questionnaires are easy to score/collate when the questions are closed
  • questionnaires are standardised so it is easy to replicate.
52
Q

Questionnaires -ve:

A
  • Ps may misunderstand the questions and the researcher is not there to clarify
    = questionnaires can have a low response rate.
  • can have a biased sample as they are only suitable for people who can read and are willing and able to spend the time on them
  • certain types of people would be more willing to fill in questionnaires (e.g. people without busy careers) and so the sample may not be
    representative of the target population
53
Q

Considerations when writing questions (3)?

A

Clarity
- Qs should be clear so that the participants know what is being asked
- should be no ambiguity
- double negatives should be avoided, as should double barrelled questions
Bias
- bias in a question may lead the respondent to give a particular answer (e.g. leading questions)
- one problem is social desirability bias
- respondents may prefer to give answers that
make them look more attractive, nicer, more generous etc. rather than being truthful, especially if the questions are socially
sensitive
Analysis
- Qs needs to be written so that they are easy to analyse
- closed questions are easier to analyse than open questions but participants may be forced to select answers that do not reflect their real thoughts, feelings or behaviours

54
Q

Considerations when writing good questionnaires (4)?

A

Filler Questions
- adding irrelevant questions distracts the
respondent from the main purpose of the questionnaire so reduces the risk of demand characteristics
Sequence of Questions
- best to start with easy questions and save those that might make people feel anxious or defensive for later
Sampling Technique
- sampling technique used could cause the
questionnaire to have a biased sample
- questionnaire studies often use stratified sampling
Pilot Study
- questions could be tested on a small group of
people
- means the questions can later be refined in response to any difficulties encountered

55
Q

Recording interviews:

A
  • interviewer could take written notes throughout the interview but this is likely to interfere with their listening skills
  • if the researcher does not write something down the interviewee may feel like what they
    have said is not valuable
  • alternatively, interviews may be audio recorded or video recorded
56
Q

The Effect of the Interviewer:

A
  • one of the strengths of conducting an interview over a questionnaire is that the presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondent’s answers may increase the amount of information provided
  • interviewers need to be aware of their non-verbal communication (e.g. do not sit with
    your arms crossed, frown etc.) and their listening skills (e.g. do not interrupt)
57
Q

What is a correlation?

A
  • a technique for analysing the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
  • known in correlation as co-variables
58
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A
  • means that as one variable increases the other variable increases as well
  • or that as one variable decreases the other variable decreases as well
59
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A
  • means that as one variable increases the other variable decreases
60
Q

How is the strength of a correlation determined?

A
  • rating between -1 and 1
  • 0 means no correlation
  • -1 means that there is a strong negative correlation
  • 1 means that there is a strong positive correlation
61
Q

What does the correlation coefficient tell us?

A
  • the strength of the correlation
62
Q

Correlations +ve:

A
  • allows psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship between two variables and measure it precisely
    = once a correlation has been conducted predictions can be made about one of the variables based on what is known about the other variable
  • allows researchers to investigate things that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons
63
Q

Correlations -ve:

A
  • correlational analysis cannot demonstrate cause and effect; we cannot tell
    which variable influences the other
    = even if there is a correlation between two variables it may be the case that
    the variables are not actually related but that there is a third unknown variable which influences both
  • can only measure linear relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships, this is when there is a positive relationship up to a certain point but after that, the relationship becomes negative (or vice versa)
64
Q

Differences between correlations and experiments?

A
  • experiment isolates and manipulates the IV to observe its effect on the DV + controls the environment in order that EV may be eliminated
  • experiments establish cause and effect
  • experiment tests the effect that an IV has upon a DV
  • BUT a correlation looks for a relationship between two covariables
  • means that an experiment can predict cause and effect (causation)
  • BUT a correlation can only predict a relationship, as a third extraneous variable may be involved that is not known about

Psychology (30 decks)

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