Relationships: Factors Affecting Attraction (L1-4) Flashcards
1
Q
What is Darwin’s concept of sexual selection?
A
- about the selection of characteristics which aid successful reproduction rather than survival
- but clear that reproduction ultimately aids survival
- certain physical characteristics like male peacocks tail are a sign of genetic fitness
- so female ones who select a male with certain tails are more likely to produce robust offspring which would continue into future gen
2
Q
What features are referred to as adaptive?
A
- they are an advantage and act as competition against other males for reproductive rights
- such as aggression
- means that is this aggressive male then reproduces then is likely this trait will remain in the population
3
Q
What is the basis of human behaviour?
A
- anisogamy
4
Q
What is anisogamy?
A
- refers to the differences between male and female sex cells, gametes
5
Q
Female sex cells?
A
- eggs or ova
- large
- static
- produced at intervals for a limited number of fertile years
- require significant investment of energy
6
Q
Male sex cells?
A
- sperm
- very small
- very mobile
- created continuously in vast numbers from puberty until old age
- do not need much energy to be produced
7
Q
What is a consequence of anisogamy?
A
- no shortage of fertile males
- fertile female is a rarer source since egg production is finite due to menopause
8
Q
What does anisogamy give rise to?
A
- 2 types of sexual selection
1. inter-sexual selection
2. intra-sexual selection
9
Q
What is inter-sexual selection?
A
- between sexes
- strategies that males and females use to select the other sex
- preferred strategy of female since quality over quantity as sperm is plentiful
10
Q
What are the male strategies to increase opportunities for mating success?
A
- courtship rituals
- size
- sperm competition
- mate guarding
- sneak copulation
11
Q
What is meant by courtship rituals, male?
A
- allow males to display genetic potential
- through characteristics and resource abilities
12
Q
What is meant by size, male?
A
- males evolve to be bigger
- shows strength for success in comp with other males
- includes weaponry in some other species like antlers in deer
13
Q
What is meant by sperm competition, male?
A
- action of natural selection on males
- makes them more competitive by producing larger testicles, bigger ejaculations and faster swimming sperm
14
Q
What is meant by mate guarding, male?
A
- male fear of being cuckolded
- and spending resources raising another males child
- indulge in mate guarding to keep an eye on their partner
- remain in close contact with female partner to prevent them mating with other males
15
Q
What did Buss (1993) suggest regarding mate guarding?
A
- men are fearful of partners being sexually unfaithful
- women worry about emotional unfaithfulness, due to fear of their partner spending resources on other females
16
Q
What is sneak copulation, male?
A
- males mating with other females as well as their partner if given opportunity
- to increase chances of reproductive success
- women also gain as offspring have different fathers
- increases wider genetic diversity which increases survival
- females can benefit if partner is a rich man but then gets pregnant from genetically fit ‘stud’ but if caught risks abandonment
17
Q
What are the female strategies for inter-sexual selection?
A
- sexy sons hypothesis
- handicap hypothesis
- courtship
18
Q
What is the sexy sons hypothesis, female?
A
- devised by Fisher (1930)
- argued that females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive features
- increasing their sons and their own reproductive fitness
19
Q
What is the handicap hypothesis, female?
A
- Zahavi (1975) believes females elect males with handicaps
- allows them to display superior genetic quality
- may find males who drink or take drugs attractive as their ability to care for them demonstrates their genetic fitness
20
Q
What is courtship, female?
A
- use courtship to select males on the basis of reproductive fitness
- done through males demonstrating strength, health and ability to provide resources
- prolonged courtship benefits females as males must then invest time, effort and resources
- increases the chances of the male not deserting their partners after a successful damage
21
Q
What is intra-sexual selection?
A
- within each sex
- strategies between males to be the one who is selected
- preferred selection for males, quantity over quality as they have enough sperm
- comp between males to be selected to mate with a female
- winner then gets to pass on their characteristics to their offspring
- losers do not get to reproduce and pass on their characteristics
22
Q
What has intra-sexual selection given rise to?
A
- dimorphism, two forms
- males and females look different
- males likely to have physical competition so ice is considered, larger means more likely to reproduce
- females do not need to compete so no evolutionary drive favouring larger females
- in females, youthfulness is important since males prefer younger and more fertile females
23
Q
What are the behavioural consequences of intra-sexual selection?
A
- can be controversial
- such as males being more deceitful, intelligent and aggressive as these characteristics are needed to win the female against other males
- in order to retain their mate, males must also behave aggressively to protect their mate from others so aggression is necessary
24
Q
Evolutionary explanation for partner preferences +ve:
A
- research support for inter sexual selection
- Clark and Hatfield sent m+f psych students out to uni capus
- went to other students alone and said “I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?”
- no female agreed
- 75% of males agreed instantly
- supports view that females are choosier than males when it comes to sexual partner selection
- men instead evolved different strategy to ensure reproductive success
= Pawlowski and Dunbar examined idea that older women don’t disclose true age in personal advertisements
= since men judge partners based on age due to link to fertility
= was true for women between 35-50, hid age to find high quality partners before menopause
= supports intersexual selection - research support for intra
- David Buss used survey for over 10k adults in 33 countries
- asked q’s relating to various attributes that evolutionary theory predicts about intra sexual selection
- found f place greater value on resource related attributes like money and ambition than m did
- m valued physical attractiveness and youth so good reproductive capacity more than females
- supports idea that each gender competes with each other to gain sexual partner for different reasons
25
Q
Evolutionary explanation for partner preferences -ve:
A
- assumes that one strategy is adaptive
- e.g. all males looking for younger females due to them being more fertile
- and that all females are looking for a ‘stud’
- too simplistic, reductionist
- e.g. there are other factors that might be relevant such as if somebody wants a long term or lifetime relationship
- Buss and Schmitt (2016) argue m+f looking for long term relationships much choosier looking for partners that are loving, loyal and kind
- clearly more complex than simple explanation by evolutionary theory about sexual selection
= social + cultural influences underestimated
= partner preferences over past century influenced by changing social norms of behaviour
= develop much faster than evolution, have come about due to cultural influences, like contraception
= + women greater role in the workplace, no longer dependent on men for financial support
= according to Bereczkei et al (1997), social change means women’s mate preferences have changed
= no longer rely on men being breadwinners
= evolutionary theory must account for social and cultural influences otherwise is incomplete - sexual selection theory as evolutionary theory cannot explain partner preferences for gay and lesbian individuals
- homosexuals are not looking for genetic fitness, smt key to heterosexual relationships
- may assess other qualities relevant to the caring of offspring
- also, Lawson et al (2014) looked at personal ads placed by heterosexual and homosexual individuals, describing what they are looking for in their partner and what they are offering
- found that the preferences of homosexual men and women differed as they did with heterosexual men and women
- men emphasised physical attractiveness and women emphasised resources
- but the study did conclude that homosexual and heterosexual relationships are not similar in choosing partners
26
Q
What is meant by self disclosure?
A
- revealing personal information about yourself
27
Q
Significance of self disclosure in relationships?
A
- romantic partners will reveal more about themselves as their relationship develops
- self disclosures about deepest thoughts and feelings strengthens romantic bond when used appropriately
28
Q
Self disclosure early on in relationships?
A
- in early days of relationship want to learn a lot about our new partner
- more we learn more we like our partner
- revealing ourselves allows us to share likes/dislikes, hopes, interests and attitudes
- can share what is important to us
- then understand each other better
29
Q
What are the theories towards self disclosure?
A
- social penetration theory, Altman and Taylors
- reciprocity, Reis and Shaver
30
Q
What is the social penetration theory, SD?
A
- Altman + Taylor (1973)
- all about how relationships develop
- is the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else
- giving away your deepest thoughts + feelings
31
Q
How does the social penetration theory play out in romantic relationships?
A
- involves reciprocal exchange of info between intimate partners
- when one partner reveals smt personal, indicates trust so encourages other partner to share personal info
- as more info disclosed partners penetrate more deeply into each others lives
- gain a better and greater understanding of eachother
- sd will encourage reciprocation and a stronger realtionship
32
Q
What are the 2 elements of sd according to spt A+T?
A
- breadth and depth
- as both increase so will commitment of both partners
- Altman + Taylors describe breadth and depth like many layers of an onion
- as we peel the onion, we reveal more about ourselves
- happens gradually and overtime
- revealing too much can lead to TMI
- TMI could ruin relationship before it even starts
33
Q
What was said about reciprocity of sd by Reese and Shaver?
A
- for relationship to develop needs to be reciprocity in disclosure
- e.g. if one partner discloses smt intimate + reveals smt about their true self, other will respond with own thoughts and empathy
- so balance of self disclosure between partners in romantic relationships
- increases intimacy and deepness of relationship
34
Q
Self disclosure +ve:
A
- research support for spt
- Sprecher and Hendrick studied heterosexual dating couples
- found strong correlation between several measuress of satisfaction + self disclosure for both partners
- men + women who reciprocated sd more satisfied and commited to partner
+^ = support by Sprecher et al
= confirmed reciprocity of sd being factor helping relationships with closeness and satisfaction
= both findings increase validity of theory that sd requires reciprocity for relationship success and to be long term - has prac value
- can help ppl that want to improve communication in relationship
- romantic partners may use sd to increase intimacy
- e.g. Haas and Stafford found 57% of homosexual wen and women said open and honest sd main way they maintained + deepened relationship
- if partners who limit communication to small talk learn to use sd then could bring deeper satisfaction and commitment to relationship
- study supports idea, couples who have problems can be supported through sd
35
Q
Self disclosure -ve:
A
- much research correaltional
- e.g. Sprecher+Hendricks, used self report to gather data
- much of findings correlational
- found between sd and increased satisfaction
- does not conclude self disclosure causes satisfaction
- could be that high satisfaction leads to more self disclosure
- or 3rd variable like amount of time with partner affecting satisfaction
- need to be mindful when determining cause and effect
= increasing breadth and depth leading to more satisfying and intimate relationships untrue for all cultures
= Nu Tang et al, research into sexual self disclosure
= found m+f in US, individualist culture self disclose more sexual thoughts + feelings than those in China, collectivist culture
= despite low levels of sd in China, levels of satisfaction no different than US
= so cannot make generalised ethnocentric conclusions about sd increasing satisfaction in romantic relationships
36
Q
What is physical attraction?
A
- how appealing we find a persons face
37
Q
General agreements and assumptions regarding physical attraction?
A
- general agreement within and across cultures about what is considered physically attractive
- assumption that we seek to form relationships with the most attractive person available
38
Q
Explanation as to why physical attraction is important when forming relationships?
A
- based on evolutionary theory related to sexual selection
- Shackelford and Larsen, ppl with symmetrical faces seen as more attractive
- ^ honest sign of genetic fitness, cannot be faked
39
Q
What type of faces are people supposedly attracted to?
A
- symmetrical faces, sign of honest genetic fitness
- neotenous/baby face, features like widely separated and big eyes, delicate chin and small nose
- ^ triggers protective and caring instinct
40
Q
What are the 2 factors affecting attraction?
A
- halo effect
- matching hypothesis
41
Q
What is the halo effect?
A
- idea that physical attraction matters due to preconceived ideas of the personality traits an attractive person has
- these traits are almost universally positive
42
Q
Main idea of the halo effect?
A
- how one distinguishing feature, physical attraction in this case
- has disproportionate influence on judgement of ones personality
43
Q
Who summed up the halo effect and how?
A
- Dion et al (1972)
- used phrase ‘what is beautiful is good’
- found that physically attractive people consistently seen as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
44
Q
What is an example of the self fulfilling prophecy, he?
A
- belief that physically attractive people have ‘nice’ characteristics
- makes them even more attractive
- so we behave positively towards them
45
Q
Halo effect +ve:
A
- research evidence to suggest physical attraction associated with halo effect
- Palmer and Peterson found physically attractive rated as more politically knowledgable + competent than unattractive
- so powerful, still persisted when participants knew ‘knowledgable’ people had no expertise
- implications in real world settings, attractive politicians getting more votes
- # people not voting for capability but attractiveness
