RM A2: L1-6

Question 1

What is a content analysis?

Answer 1

• research methods used to study and analyse the content of communication like text, images and media
• goal is to understand patterns, themes or messages within the content

Question 2

How is content analysis carried out on large pieces of data?

Answer 2

• use of coding system of pre determined categories that can be applied to the content
• pilot study often used to test the categories to ensure they are separate and do not overlap
• coding could be counting the number of times a word/behaviour appears

Question 3

What is thematic analysis?

Answer 3

• more focused form of content analysis working with qualitative data
• used to identify, analyse and interpret key themes or patterns in the data

Question 4

Content analysis +ve:

Answer 4

• produces reliable data
• if was to be repeated in the future results would be similar/consistent
  = produces quantitative data
  = allows for trends and patterns in data to be identified
• less time consuming than other research methods like interviews when collecting data
  = strong external validity as data already in real world so high mundane realism
• ethical issues like confidentiality avoided as data already in public domain

Question 5

Content analysis -ve:

Answer 5

• not very scientific or objective
• can be subjective based on themes used
  = can be invalid, are themes really measuring the effect of IV on DV
• data collected needs to be contextualised
• adds complexity and subjectivity
• e.g. sleep behaviour in lab is different context to sleep at home
  = possible observer bias but can be eliminated by inter-rater reliability
• possible interpretative bias, researcher may pay extra attention to certain things while ignoring others

Question 6

What are the stages of a content analysis?

Answer 6

1. sampling
   - decide how behaviour/material should be sampled
   - time or event sampling?
2. record data
   - table/video??
3. analyse/categorise data
   - summarise data quantitatively or qualitatively?
4. tally up amounts

Question 7

What is a case study?

Answer 7

• detailed study into the life of a person
• covers a great detail into their background
• looks at past and present behaviour of the individual to build a case history
• provides qualitative data
• usually focus on a small number of people as usually only few people with a rare behaviour
• aim to be scientific in their approach

Question 8

What is a longitudinal study?

Answer 8

• when the case study takes place over a long period of time
• person/group is tracked over a period of time to look for changes that might occur

Question 9

Examples of case studies:

Answer 9

• case study of HM from memory
• Little Hans for psychodynamic approach

Question 10

Case studies +ve:

Answer 10

• detailed so able to gain in depth insight
  = forms basis for future research
• studying of unusual behaviours lets us infer things about usual behaviour of humans
  = allows the study of situations that would be unethical/difficult to investigate directly

Question 11

Case studies +ve:

Answer 11

• not generalisable to wider population as data gathered from small group
  = various interviewer biases like social desirability bias for unique individual and interpretive bias from researcher
• retrospective studies may rely on memory which could be inaccurate
  = time consuming and difficult to replicate

Question 12

What is reliability?

Answer 12

• how consistent the findings from an investigation are

Question 13

What is internal reliability?

Answer 13

• describes how consistent the test is within itself
• whether the different parts of a test or study consistently assess the same thing
• measuring instrument gives the same results on different occasions

Question 14

How is internal reliability assessed?

Answer 14

split half method
- randomly select half go questions and put in one form
- put rest in another
- both forms of this test should be done separately but end in same result
- correlated with coefficient ≥0.8

Question 15

What is intra researcher reliability?

Answer 15

• examines the consistency of the individual researchers behaviour during research
• achieved if the researcher behaves consistently during research

Question 16

What is external reliability?

Answer 16

• when consistent results are produced despite when the investigation is done or who it is done by and with
• findings should be consistent over time or with different groups

Question 17

How is external reliability assessed?

Answer 17

• test retest method
• inter observer/rater reliability
• pilot study

Question 18

How is reliability improved?

Answer 18

• inter observer/researcher reliability
• adjusting questions in interviews if included
• standardisation of instructions
• researcher training
• vigorous operationalisation, concepts less open to interpretation

Question 19

What is the test retest method?

Answer 19

• researcher administers same test on same person on different occasions
• results should have correlation coefficient of ≥0.8
• sufficient time between retest so participant cannot recall answers
• not too long as their attitudes may change

Question 20

What is inter observer reliability?

Answer 20

• extent to which there is an agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observation of the study
• eliminates subjectivity bias
• may be carried out in pilot study or at end of the study

Question 21

What is a pilot study?

Answer 21

• conducting small trial run of the study before main research
• ensures procedures and resources are of good standard
• helps minimise human error

Question 22

How can reliability be improved in self-reports (questionnaires)?

Answer 22

• if low test-retest or inter rater reliability
• items of survey deselected or rewritten
• replace open questions which are open for misinterpretation with closed questions, less ambiguous and clearer

Question 23

How can reliability be improved in self-reports (interviews)?

Answer 23

• best way to ensure reliability is to use same interviewer each time
• if not then all interviewers must be properly trained
• all interviews should be structured in a certain manner
• structured interviews so interviewer behaviour more controlled by fixed questions
  = more than one interviewer, inter researcher reliability

Question 24

How can reliability be improved in observations?

Answer 24

• making sure behavioural categories set have been properly operationalised, sir they are measurable and self evident
• categories should not overlap
• if not can lead to inconsistent records
  = inter observer reliability
• observers may need further training

Question 25

How can reliability be improved in experiments?

Answer 25

• standardisation of instructions
• procedures should be identical for each participant

Question 26

What is validity?

Answer 26

• refers to the extent to which results of a research study are legitimate

Question 27

What is internal validity?

Answer 27

• whether the outcomes observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not another factor

Question 28

What is internal validity affected by?

Answer 28

• investigator effects
• demand characteristics
• participant variables
• confounding variables
• social desirability bias
• lack of operationalisation

Question 29

How is internal validity assessed?

Answer 29

• concurrent validity
• face validity

Question 30

What is concurrent validity?

Answer 30

• extent to which a psychological measure compares to a similar existing measure
• results obtained should match or be similar to the results of the established version of this test

Question 31

What is face validity?

Answer 31

• when a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to
• can be done through simply looking at it or passing it to an expert to check

Question 32

How to improve internal validity?

Answer 32

• reduce investigator effects, 2 researchers
• reduce demand characteristics, double/single blind procedure
• tackle confounding variables, pilot study, test retest

Question 33

What is external validity?

Answer 33

• relates to factors outside the investigation
• how well the results gained from the research can be generalised to other settings, people and time lines

Question 34

What are the types of external validity?

Answer 34

• ecological validity
• temporal validity
• population validity

Question 35

What is ecological validity?

Answer 35

• extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and settings

Question 36

What is temporal validity?

Answer 36

• findings are true over a period of time
• generalisability to other historical times and eras

Question 37

What is population validity?

Answer 37

• generalisability to different populations of various ages, genders and cultures etc.

Question 38

How can external validity be assessed?

Answer 38

• meta analysis, comparison of findings from research towards same hypothesis being compared
• consider env of test, lab not natural
• assess how DV was measured, method of measure and task given can have effects
• assess whether participants were acting naturally, ensure demand characteristics are kept to min

Question 39

How to improve external validity?

Answer 39

• reduce demand, double/single blind procedure
• more natural setting like field experiment rather than lab

Question 40

How is validity improved experimental research?

Answer 40

• control group, ensure IV is affecting DV
• standardise procedures
• single/double blind

Question 41

How is validity improved in questionnaires?

Answer 41

• incorporate lie scale to diminish social desirability bias
• ensure anonymity so participants are not wary and inclined to be dishonest
• avoiding leading questions
• closed, direct questions to reduce ambiguity

Question 42

How is validity improved in observations?

Answer 42

• high ecological validity by minimal intervention by the researcher
• covert observations by observer
• precise behavioural categories, no overlapping or ambiguity

Question 43

How is validity improved in qualitative methods?

Answer 43

• interpretative validity, extent to which researchers interpretation matches those of their participants
• ^ coherence with researcher reports and direct quotes from p
• triangulation, use of different sources for evidence

Question 44

What is a paradigm?

Answer 44

• a set of shared ideas and assumptions within a scientific discipline
• model or set of rules that people follow because they believe it works well