revise for sport pyshc exam Flashcards
What is attitude ?
this is a mode of behaviour and is the typical response of an individual. Attitude can be positive and negative. Attitude can influence behaviour in a given situation.
How is attitude formed ?
- through experiences
- through socialisation: observing and interacting with significant others
- through reinforcement
- Familiarity: experienced something a lot
What is the triadic model of attitudes ?
this is the theory that attitude has 3 main components:
* cognitive component: this is what you think; it represents your beliefs
- affective component: your feelings/emotions
- behavioural component: what you do: actions of the performer
What are the two theories that are set out to change attitude ?
- cognitive dissonance theory
- Persuasive communication theory
What is the cognitive dissonance theory ?
this theory suggests that if a person hold two opposing ideas, dissonance will arise. It also states that altering any of the 3 components of attitude can bring about change
What is persuasive communication theory ?
there are 4 elements to this theory:
* The persuader: the person needs to be seen significant and of high status
- The message: the message needs to be conveyed in a way that makes the person want to change attitude
- The recipient: the change of attitude is made easier if the recipient already wants to change
- The situation: timing the persuasion correctly so that most amount of change can be brought about
What are the 5 strategies to improve a performer’s attitude ?
- reward successful elements of a performance
- use positive role models
- give positive reinforcement for correct behaviour/attitude
- negative reinforcement for unacceptable behaviour
- ensure training is enjoyable to maintain motivation
What is aggression ?
- intent to harm
- outside of the rules
- reactive
What is assertion ?
- controlled
- not intended to harm
- goal-directed
What is Instinct Theory of aggression ?
this is a trait perspective theory and claims that all performers are born with aggressive tendencies, which will arise if provoked.
What is the social learning theory of aggression ?
aggression is seen as a learned response. Aggression can be copied from others, especially if reinforced. Aggression is learned from significant others such as: role models, teammates or a coach.
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis ?
this theory suggests that aggression occurs when goals are blocked and the performer becomes frustrated. This then leads to catharsis, where the aggressive act will reduce the aggressive drive. However if the performer is unable to release the aggression, the self-punishment will occur, leading to further frustration and an increase in the aggressive drive.
What are some of the reasons as to why people react aggressively due to frustration in sport ?
- poor play by the performer themselves
- losing a game
- disagreement with the official
What is the aggressive cue hypothesis ?
this theory suggests that an increase in frustration, will lead to an increase in arousal and an increase in an aggressive response. However an aggressive response will only occur if learned cues are present to trigger the stimulus.
How can players prevent aggression ?
- walk away from a situation
- use mental rehearsal to lower arousal
- set non-aggressive goals
How can coaches prevent aggression ?
- substitute an aggressive player
- reinforce non-aggressive behaviour
- point out non-aggressive role models
How can officials reduce aggression ?
- talk to players to calm them down
- apply sanctions immediately
- punish player by sending them off
What was Zajonc’s theory to do with social facilitation and inhibition ?
he proposed that in sport there are 4 types of others who can be present when playing sport:
* the audience: spectators
* the competitors : in direct competition
* the co-actors: doing the same thing but not in direct competition
* social reinforcers: direct influence on the performance, such as coach
Do the audience and co-actors have a passive influence on the performer ?
yes
Do the competitors and social reinforcers have a direct influence on the performer ?
yes
What factors lead to social inhibition or social facilitation ?
- experience of player: beginner will experience anxiety and over arousal when being watched, because they have little experience in the sport and are less likely to perform the correct dominant response.(social inhibition). Expert will be able to cope with the demands of the crowd and will be motivated by the support, because their actions will be well learned and they can control their arousal levels , therefore less thought upon performing the action and an increase chance of performing the correct dominant response. Therefore action can be well performed even under pressure.(social facilitation)
- complexity of the skill: if the skill is simple then little concentration is needed, therefore more likely to perform correctly ( social facilitation). if the skill is complex it will require lots of information processing. and the ability to do this is reduced in stressful situations or when being watched, this will then increase in arousal and then less likely to deal with lots of information and then leading to social inhibition
What is evaluation apprehension ?
this is the perceived fear of being judged by significant others when being watched. However this can have a positive and negative effect, depending on the type of performer. A nach performer will more likely flourish when being watched and naf performer may crumble under the pressure when being watched.
Suggest 5 strategies that a coach could use to reduce social inhibition
- Train in front of a large audience: get used to being watched and learn to cope with other present
- over learn skills: so dominant response becomes correct when arousal increases
- improve selective attention: allows the performer to focus on important cues in the game rather than the audience
- mental rehearsal: so performer remains calm and maintains arousal levels when other are present
- reduce the importance of an event: so players are not put under too much pressure when they perform.
What is Tuckman’s theory of group formation ?
This is his theory that a team must go through 4 stages to begin working as a unit:
Forming: this is where the group gets to know each other.
Storming: potential conflict in this stage as individuals compete to establish their positions, status or role
Norming: once conflict has been resolved, the team settles down and begins to cooperate.
Performing: all the players are working together as one to achieve their goals. Players support each other and understand their role in the team
What factors affect how long it takes for a team to start working well together ?
- size of the group
- difficulty of the task
- experience of the players
What are the two types of cohesion ?
task cohesion: looks at the end of result of the team and everyone on the team fulfilling their individual role to achieve their goal
social cohesion: its the interaction between the members and how they work together to achieve their goals.
What’s an evaluation for social cohesion ?
Positives:
* improve communication and team spirit, therefore increasing the effort of the group in training sessions and competitions
Negative:
* might cause sub-groups within the team and therefore friction. Decreasing team corporation and leading to social loafing
What are the main components of Steiner’s Model ?
- Actual Productivity: the team performance during a game and links to the extent of a successful interaction
- Potential Productivity: the maximum capability of the group when cohesiveness is a its peak
- faulty processes: factors which can go wrong in team performance
What are the two faulty processes ?
- Co-ordination losses ( Ringelmann effect): any breakdown in teamwork of the group.
- Motivational losses ( Social Loafing): an individual who suffers a decrease in motivation during performance and so withdraws effort.
What are factors that cause social loafing ?
- feeling that others in the team are not trying
- feeling that performances are never valued by the coaching staff
- if task is too difficult can cause a loss of motivation
Factors that indirectly affect teamwork ?
- injuries
- low sum of players overall ability
- inadequate leadership
Factors that decrease faulty processes?
- structured training sessions, so that all players know tactics and strategies
- give individuals special roles
- give feedback to team to make improvements
What does the term attribution mean ?
these are the perceived reasons given for winning and losing.
Why is attribution used ?
they are used to maintain motivation and effort. In addition it can help with task persistence
What is Weiner’s model of attribution ?
the first component of this model if locus of causality. This is the amount of control a player had over the result. It can be internal, within the control of the performer, or external out of the players control.
the second component of the model is locus of stability. This states that reasons for winning can be stable and unstable. A stable attribute is where it could change in the long term, however does not have an instant impact. An example if you played a good team, there is a good chance that they will still be a good team when you play them next. An unstable attribute is one which has a instant impact, for example if you didn’t put much effort into the game, there is a good chance your performances will change.
What does the term self serving bias mean ?
this helps to promote confidence and self esteem by promoting losses to external and unstable reasons. If this is done then the player will maintain motivation, as they know that they can change their performance for the better. Coaches should ensure that losses can be changed in the future with internal changeable factors such as effort.
What is learned helplessness ?
this is when a player doubts their own ability to complete a task successfully.
How does learned helplessness occur ?
when a player blames failure on stable and internal factors.
How can learned helplessness be developed ?
- negative feedback
- lack of regular success
What is attribution retraining ?
this is overcoming learned helplessness by changing the reason for failure using a number of strategies.
What are the strategies for attribution retraining ?
- positive reinforcement: to provide motivation
- set tasks within ability to allow for success
- set achievable goals
What is mastery of orientation ?
this is when the player has high confidence and believes in their ability and that success can be repeated and failure is temporary.
What is a leader ?
this is someone who influences you toward achieving your goal
What are the two types of leaders ?
- Emergent leader: this is a leader who already belongs to the group.
- Prescribe leader: this is a leader who is selected from outside of the group
What are qualities of a leader ?
- good communication skills
- inspirational
- organisational skills
- empathy
What is an autocratic leader ?
this type of leader tends to make all the decisions and are motivated to get results and complete tasks as quickly and effectively as possible. They will not delegate their responsibility and are best used for larger groups. If the coach is not present the group may fail to work together.
What is a autocratic leader ?
they adopt a more sympathetic approach and will seek opinions. They will delegate responsibility and focus on developing relationships. This group will usually continue to work together when the coach is not present.
What is a Laissez- Faire leader ?
this leader will set aside and allow the group to make its own decisions. This method can be used effectively with an experienced group, however if not experienced can create a breakdown in cohesion.
What is Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership ?
Fielder took into account the situation and that different leadership styles should be used depending on the situation. He suggested that autocratic leadership could be used in the most favourable situation, when everything is good and least favourable situation. He then suggested if the situation is moderately favourable, then democratic leadership style should be used.
What is chelladurai’s multidimensional model of leadership ?
he suggested that 3 influences must interact to produce effective leadership.
- Situational characteristics ( required behaviour): the type of task, number of people in the team, time constraints etc.
- Leader characteristics ( actual behaviour): experiences and personality
- Group member characteristics ( preferred behaviour) : age, gender and experience
