Research Methods A2

Question 1

What is content analysis?

Answer 1

A method used to analyse qualitative data. It allows the researcher to take qualitative data and transform it into quantitative data. This can be used for data such as interviews and audio recordings.

Question 2

Content analysis steps?

Answer 2

1) data is collected
2) researcher examines data making themselves familiar with it
3) the researcher identifies categories
4) a tally is made with the number of times that a category appears

Question 3

What is thematic analysis?

Answer 3

Thematic analysis is a way of analysing qualitative data that involves identifying patterns within data.

Question 4

Steps for thematic analysis?

Answer 4

1) make a transcription of the interview
2) use categories to initially analyse the transcript
3) review the categories to look for common themes

Question 5

Strengths of content analysis?

Answer 5

1) it is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the categories are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers .

2) it allows statistical analysis to be conducted if required as there is usually quantitative data as a result of the procedure.

Question 6

Weaknesses of content analysis?

Answer 6

1) researcher bias could occur as the researcher has to interpret the data.

2) causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data.

Question 7

What are case studies?

Answer 7

1) they are a detailed investigation of a usually small number of people as the behaviour tends to be rare.

2) they tend to be scientific in their approach and used systematic methods to collect data.

3) psychologists can either collect quantitative or qualitative data.

4) case studies can take place over a large period of time and can become longtitudinal.

Question 8

Strengths of case studies?

Answer 8

1) case studies can lead to findings that conflict current theories and stimulate new paths for research.

2) case studies create opportunities for a rich yield of data, and the depth of analysis in turn brings high levels of validity.

Question 9

Weaknesses of case studies?

Answer 9

1) Case studies are unusual by nature, so will have poor reliability as being able to replicate them exactly will be unlikely.

2) Due to the small sample size, it is unlikely that findings from a case study alone can be generalised to the wider population

Question 10

What is the definition of reliability?

Answer 10

It’s based on the consistency of measurements. A piece of research is deemed reliable when the same research is carried out again in the future and produces the same results.

Question 11

What is internal reliability?

Answer 11

this is concerned with whether the measuring instrument used in research can give the same results on different occasions. The measuring instrument used must be consistent.

Question 12

What is intra researcher reliability?

Answer 12

this examines the consistency of the individual researcher’s behaviour during the research. This occurs when the researcher behaves consistently during research.

Question 13

What is a test re-test?

Answer 13

The same test is given to the same particpants on two different occasions to see if the same results can be gained.

Question 14

What ways can you assess reliability ?

Answer 14

1) test re-test- repeat the observation a second time with the same participants and compare results. Produce a correlation coefficient and if it exceeds 0.8 it is reliable.

2) pilot study- conduct a trial run before the main research is carried out. This ensures the resources used in the research can improve precious when measuring behaviour eg standardising instructions, and operationalising variables.

Question 15

How to Improve reliability?

Answer 15

1) inter-observer reliability- more than one observer records the behaviours seperately. The correlation coefficient needs to exceed 0.8 to be reliable.

2) make sure questions are not ambiguous so that participants understand them and give the same answers if asked agin in the future.

3) standardisation of instructions- procedures should be exactly the same for each particpant that takes part in the experiement. Variables should be operationalised.

Question 16

What is internal validity?

Answer 16

The degree of confidence that the relationship you are testing is not influenced by other factors or variables.

Question 17

What are investigator effects?

Answer 17

When a researcher unconsciously influences the outcome of the research they’re conducting.

Question 18

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 18

Participants guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour to please the experimenter.

Question 19

What are confounding variables?

Answer 19

A variable other than the independent variable that can influence the outcome of the study

Question 20

What is social desirability bias?

Answer 20

This is where participants give answers that will make them look good to the experimenter.

Question 21

What are the two methods to assess internal validity?

Answer 21

Concurrent validity - scores of a new test can be compared against an older, established test where the validity is already known. If the scores from both test are similar and a positive correlation coefficient of +0.8 or greater is found, than the new test has high internal validity.

Face validity- this measures whether the test at face value is measuring what it should eg a questionnaire. One or more researcher examines the test items to see if they’re measuring what they’re meant to.

Question 22

How to Improve internal validity?

Answer 22

Concurrent validity- remove questions that seem irrelevant or ambiguous then test for concurrent validity again.

Face validity- an expert examines all the questions and then they might improve and reword the questions.

Reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects by carrying out a double blind trial.

You can reduce confounding variables by randomisation of independent variables to participants and a lab experiment has better control of variables.

Question 23

What is external validity?

Answer 23

The extent to which you can generalise findings of the study to other situations and settinsg

Question 24

What are the types of external validity?

Answer 24

Ecological validity- a measure of how test performance predicts behaviour in real-world setting

Temporal validity -this is whether the results of a study would be glue same at different time periods.

Question 25

What is a science?

Answer 25

Science is the systematic and controlled approach to creating knowledge that we can rely on to predict and control the world.

Question 26

When is psychology a science?

Answer 26

1) when the sample size is large and representative
2) there is a high level of control eg lab experiments
3) key words are defined and measured (operationalised)

Question 27

What are empirical methods?

Answer 27

A method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing. This can help seperate unfounded beliefs from real truth

Question 28

What is a paradigm?

Answer 28

A paradigm is a shared set of assumptions and agreed methods that are found within scientific disciplines.

Question 29

Why is psychology seen as a “pre-science”?

Answer 29

Kuhn suggested that psychology has a lack of paradigms. It has too many internal disagreements and conflicting approaches.

Question 30

What is a paradigm shift?

Answer 30

Kuhn states that a paradigm shift is when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory of a scientific discipline occurs and causes a paradigm shift.

one theory is dominant within a scientific discipline. Some researchers might question the accepted paradigm and might have contradictory research that disagrees with the main paradigm. Counter evidence builds up and the present paradigm is overthrown. The new paradigm now becomes the dominant one.

Question 31

What is objectivity?

Answer 31

Objectivity is dealing with facts in a way that is unaffected by beliefs, opinios, feelings or expectations.

A good researcher keeps critical distance from the research and does not let personal beliefs interfere. More likely achieved using lab experiments or observations.

Question 32

What is replicability?

Answer 32

The extent to which the findings of research can be repeated in different contexts and circumstances.

Question 33

Purposes of replicability?

Answer 33

1) guarding against scientific fraud
2) researchers can check if results gained were a fluke
3) check to see if results are reliable
4) can also check of if results are valid

Tends to be best in a lab experiment as variables are controlled.

Question 34

What is falsifiability?

Answer 34

Popper stated “the notion that scientific theories can be potentially be disproved by evidence, it refers to proving a hypothesis wrong”

Question 35

What is theory construction?

Answer 35

Theories are constructed via hypothesis testing and re-testing which is part of the scientific process.

Question 36

What is deductive reasonings + steps?

Answer 36

Popper devised the hypothetico-deductive model suggesting that theories about the world come first then hypothesis should be generated and tested.

1) propose a theory
2) develop a hypothesis
3) test this theory
4) draw conclusions

Question 37

What is inductive theory + steps?

Answer 37

A researcher observed instances of natural phenomenon and this leads to the researcher creating a hypothesis.

1) observe facts in the environment
2) develop hypothesis from observations
3) test the hypothesis
4) draw conclusions
5) devise theory based on information

Question 38

General points when writing psychological reports?

Answer 38

1) write in third person
2) should be clear so exact replication is possible
3) method should include experimental design+ reasoning and research method + reasoning.
4) ethical issues should be taken into account
5) give details of sample
6) summary/relationship of results should be given + limitations
7) should have a reference section at the end.

Question 39

What order does journal referencing happen in?

Answer 39

Authors name, date of publication, title of article, journal title, volume, page numbers

Question 40

What order does book referencing happen in?

Answer 40

Author’s name, date of publication, title of book, place of publication, publisher

Question 41

What is an abstract?

Answer 41

It is a clear and concise summary of the entire investigation so readers can gain an overview of the piece of research. It includes information like background research aims, hypothesis, sample, conclusions and imitations. It is usually written when the whole report is complete.

Question 42

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 42

A correlation coefficient measures the strength of the linear relationship between two variables. This is a value between -1 and +1. -1 shows string negative correlation and +1 shows string positive correlation.

Question 43

What are the advantages of correlations?

Answer 43

1) this technique allows psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship between two variables and measure it precisely.

2) this technique also allows researchers to investigate things that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons.

3) once a correlation has been conducted , predictions can be made about one of the variables based on what is known about the other variable.

Question 44

What are the disadvantages of correlations?

Answer 44

1) correlational analysis cannot demonstrate cause and effect, we cannot tell which variable affects the other.

2) even if there is a correlation between two variables, it may be the case that the variables are not actually related but a third unknown confounding variable influences both.

3) correlations can only measure linear relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships. This is when there is a positive relationship up to a certain point but after this point, the relationship becomes negative or vice versa.

Question 45

What is the definition of levels of statistical significance?

Answer 45

The level at which the decision is made to reject the null hypothesis in favour for the experimental hypothesis. It states how sure we can be that the iv affects the dv and is not due to chance.

Question 46

Why is the 5% significance level most commonly used in psychology?

Answer 46

1) it is not too strict or too lenient and is a fair value of significance
2) it minimises the chances of making a type 1 or type 2 error.

Question 47

Why is a 1% significance value sometimes used?

Answer 47

This is often used when research findings are critical and are very important eg when testing the effect of drugs on humans, we must make sure the results are not a fluke.

Question 48

What is a type 1 error?

Answer 48

This error means we accept the experimental hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. However the results of the study are due to chance and not statistically significant.

Question 49

What is a type 2 error?

Answer 49

This means the we reject the experimental hypothesis and accept the null hypothesis instead. However the results were statiscally significant and not due to chance.

Question 50

What is nominal data?

Answer 50

The data consists of categories. A participant can only be placed in one category. An example would be male and female.

Question 51

What is ordinal data?

Answer 51

The data can be placed in rank order from lowest to highest. They data is usually of unequal intervals eg 1.20, 1.25, 1.27. An example would be how quickly Latino age finished a swimming race.

Question 52

What is interval data?

Answer 52

The data has fixed and even intervals. This includes things such as height and weight.

Question 53

How are parametric and non parametric tests different?

Answer 53

Parametric tests are more robust and powerful than non-parametric tests. They rely on actual test. Parametric tests means the data must be interval, normal distribution and should have similar variance of data.

Question 54

What are the three questions to decide what statistical test to use?

Answer 54

1) is the Research a test of difference, a correlation or association.

2) which research design is usued eg independant measures.

3) what level of measurement is used eg nominal and ordinal.

Question 55

What statistical tests are used for independent measures (test of difference)?

Answer 55

Nominal- chi squared
Ordinal - Mann Whitney U test
Interval - unrelated t-test

Question 56

What statistical test should you use for repeated measures/matched pairs design (test of difference)?

Answer 56

Nominal- sign test
Ordinal- Wilcoxon
Interval- related t-test

Question 57

What test should you use when there is an association or correlation?

Answer 57

Nominal- chi squared (association)
Ordinal - spearman’s rho (correlation)
Interval - pearson’s r (correlation)