Relationships

Question 1

What is the evolutionary explanation of relationships?

Answer 1

partner preferences are driven by sexual selection. This means that both males and females choose partners in order to maximise chances of reproductive success.

Question 2

What traits in men and women make them more attractive (evolutionary theory)

Answer 2

Men - strength, height, financial stability
Women- wide hips, youthfulness

Question 3

What gametes do males and females produce?

Answer 3

Males produce sperm cells which reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure

Female gametes are much less plentiful and require far more energy to produce.

This difference is called anisogamy which means males and females use different strategies to attract a partner.

Question 4

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 4

1) intra sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually male) compete for access to the other sex.

2) this leads to male-female dimorphism which is the accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness.

3) anisogamy suggests a males best strategy is to have as many partners as possible and compete with other males to present as the most attractive male to fertile female partners.

4) males might engage in mate guarding where they guard their female partner to prevent them mating which anyone else. Males are very fearful of having to raise another man’s child. This is called cuckoldry.

Question 5

What is inter-sexual selection?

Answer 5

1) inter-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness.

2) anisogamy suggests that a women’s best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner. Females tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status and resources so that the partner can protect them and the child. In modern society more likely to link to social class and wealth.

Question 6

Strengths of the evolutionary explanation of partner preferences?

Answer 6

1) Buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource- based characteristics eg occupation whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.

2) Clark and Hatfield conducted a study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida state university of the opposite gender and ask to go on a date, back to their apartment or go to bed with them. 75% of men agreed to go to bed with them whereas 0% of women agreed to go to bed with them.

Question 7

Weaknesses of the evolutionary approach to partner preferences.

Answer 7

1) the evolutionary approach is deterministic suggesting that we have little free will in partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we do have some control over our partner preferences.

2) evolutionary approaches does not explain other types of relationships eg homosexual relationships or cultural variations which exists across the world eg arranged marriages.

3) evolutionary approach promotes traditional sexist views which are socially sensitive. Women are now career orientated and independant so therefore do not need to look for resourceful partners as much as they did in the past.

Question 8

What is self disclosure?

Answer 8

This is the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person.

Question 9

What is social penetration theory?

Answer 9

1) It was proposed by Altman and Taylor

2) this theory claims that gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, allows partners to gain a better understanding of each other and display trust. Therefore self disclosure increases attractiveness .

3) as people build trust in their partner, the amount of self disclosure will increase. Self disclosing too quickly can reduce attraction.

Question 10

What is reciprocal self-disclosure?

Answer 10

People expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give. The more self disclosure someone gives, the more self-disclosure they expect in return.

Question 11

Strengths of self disclosure?

Answer 11

1) research conducted by Altman and Taylor supports the theory of self-disclosure. They found that self-disclosure on the first dates is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. The person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not likeable.

2) Tal-or conducted research which agrees with the concept of self-disclosure being a gradual process that can affect attraction for romantic relationships. Analysis of reality TV like Big brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self disclosed early on and preferred contestants who self disclosed gradually.

Question 12

Weaknesses of self-disclosure?

Answer 12

1) Sprecher found Research evidence that the level of self-disclosure received is the best predictor of liking and loving, rather than the amount of self-disclosure given. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure.

2) it seems unlikely that attraction to a potential Partner is based on self disclosure alone. Self disclosure may be an important element, but other factors are also needed in order to increase attraction such as physical attraction, similarity in attitudes and complementary needs.

Question 13

How does physical attractiveness affect attraction in romantic relationships?

Answer 13

1) men place a great deal of importance on psychical attraction when choosing a female partner in both the long and short term.

2) physical attractiveness is also very important for females in the short term.

3) what Is considered physically attractive varies across culture and time.

Question 14

What is the halo effect?

Answer 14

The Halo effect is when the general impression of a person is formed from one characteristic alone eg physical attractive. Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy.

Question 15

Evaluation of the halo effect?

Answer 15

Strength- palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people.

Weakness- Towhey asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Particpants also completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes. People who scored higher of the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness therefore physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors eg personality.

Question 16

What is the matching hypothesis?

Answer 16

When initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves. They choose a partner with similar physical attractiveness. Most people would prefer a partner who is physically attractive, but in order to avoid rejection, chooses someone who is similar attractiveness to them.

Question 17

Strength of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 17

Fangold found supportive evidence for matching hypothesis by carrying out a meta analysis of 17 studies using real life couples. He established a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.

Question 18

Weaknesses of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 18

1) walster invited 752 first year students at the university of Minnesota to attend a dance party. They were randomly matched to a partner however were severely judged on physical attractiveness. 4-6 months later, students were asked if they found their partner attractive and contrary to matching hypothesis, regardless of their own attractiveness, they preferred if their partner was attractive.

2) sometimes a physically attractive person forms relationships with an unattractive person. The less attractive person can have traits to make up for their appearance eg being rich or funny. This is called complex matching whereby a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person.

Question 19

What is filter theory?

Answer 19

Kerchoff and David proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners. When we engage with a partner we engage in three levels of filtering, social demography, similarity in attitude and complementarity of needs.

Question 20

What is social demography?

Answer 20

This is the most important when you initially meet someone. This includes factors such as age, gender, social background and education. We are more attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own

Question 21

What is similarity in attitudes?

Answer 21

This is important for short term relationships. People tend to find other people attractive if they hold the same beliefs eg religion politics etc.

Question 22

What is complementarity of needs?

Answer 22

This is most important for long term relationships. Complementarity refers to partners having the same traits that the other partner lacks, and helping each other fulfil their needs

Question 23

Strengths of filter theory?

Answer 23

1) research conducted by Taylor found evidence to support filter theory. He found 85% of couples married in 2008, married someone from their own ethnic group supporting that social demography is part of filter theory.

2) research conducted by Hoyle supports filter theory as he found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more strongly that actual attitude similarity. This suggests that we want someone with similar beliefs to us.

Question 24

Weaknesses of filter theory?

Answer 24

1) levinger conducted research using 330 couples and found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was.

2) online dating shows a lack of support for filter theory as there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone. This is because we can meet people who live far away, have a different ethnicity and social class. We are more likely to meet people outside our demographic limits.

Question 25

What is social exchange theory ?

Answer 25

1) this is an economic model. relationships are seen as a business whereby we monitor the rewards (attention and fun) and the costs (time, emotional strain).

2) we want the maximum rewards from a relationship and the minimum costs. Individuals focus more on getting out more than they put in.

3) we assume that people who offer rewards are more attractive and people who involve greater costs are less atttractive.

Question 26

Who do we compare our current partner to according to social exchange theory?

Answer 26

1)we compare current relationships to previous relationships (comparison level)

2) we compare current partners to potential partners (comparison level with alternatives) we look around for a “better deal” if our current relationship is not satisfactory.

Question 27

Strengths of the social exchange theory?

Answer 27

1) Gottman found evidence than supports social exchange theory. He found that the ratio of positive to negative interactions in successful marriages was 5:1 however in unsuccessful marriages was 1:1.

2) social exchange theory has practical applications. Integrated couples therapy (Jacobson) helpes partners break negative patterns and increasing positive exchanges. 66% of couples reported significant improvements in their relationship after receiving this form of therapy.

Question 28

Weaknesses of social exchange theory?

Answer 28

1) Moghaddam has criticised social exchange theory as it is more applicable to individualistic cultures rather than collectivist cultures. For example, family values would be a more important reward in collectivist cultures whereas in individualistic cultures, rewards may be partners buying gifts.

2) the social exchange theory is rooted in the behaviourists approach as the maintenance of the relationship is based on rewards and operant conditioning. However some relationships eg violent relationships have little rewards and many costs but still continue.

Question 29

What is equity theory?

Answer 29

Equity theory is an economic model of relationships based on the idea of fairness for each partner. It emphasises the need for each partner to experience a balance between their costs/effort and their benefits/rewards.

Question 30

What causes distress according to equity theory?

Answer 30

1) distress will be felt if the relationship becomes unfair. If people over-benefit in the relationship and receive more rewards than their partner, they may feel guilt or pity.

2) if people under benefit in their relationship and receive less rewards than their partner, they mihgt feel angry or sad.

3) an imbalance of rewards can be tolerated as long as both parties accept the situation. Eg if someone has lost their job, the partner will tolerate and understand this.

Question 31

Strengths of equity theory?

Answer 31

1) DeMaris studied 1500 couples as part of the US National Survey of Families and Households. He found that if women were under-benefitting to a high degree, then there was a high risk of divorce occurring. Therefore equity and inequity seem to be very important for women in a relationship.

2) Brosnan found that female monkeys became angry is denied a prize for playing a game with a research, especially when they saw a money get the grapes without playing the game. This suggests that ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins.

Question 32

Weaknesses of equity theory?

Answer 32

1) equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist cultures. In individualistic cultures, people may be more concerned about rewards and costs whereas in collectivist culture, family values may be of greater importance than rewards and costs.

2) research by mills and Clarks criticised equity theory. They said that assessing rewards and costs in a relationship isn’t possible as some are emotional and psychological and cannot be easily measured. If we measure rewards and costs, it could diminish the quality of love in a relationship which could be damaging.

Question 33

Who created the investment model?

Answer 33

Rusbult

Question 34

What is the investment model?

Answer 34

Rusbult extended social exchange theory and saw commitment as a key factor in sustaining a relationship. Commitment depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.

Satisfaction is determined by availed alternatives, better alternatives equals less satisfaction. Investment acts as a deterrent to leaving a relationship.

Question 35

What are the two types of investment?

Answer 35

Intrinsic investment- refers to the resources put into the relationship directly eg effort and time

Extrinsic investment- refers to resources arising out of the relationship eg children, a house

Question 36

Strengths of Rusbult’s investment model.

Answer 36

1) Research conducted by van Lange supports the investment model. He studied students from Taiwan and Netherlands and found evidence that high commitment levels in relationshops were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size.

2) The investment model helps explain infidelity. This might occur if a person’s current relationship has low satisfaction and there is a high quality of alternative. Both these factors lessen commitment levels and the present relationship is likely to end.

Question 37

Weaknesses of Rusbult’s investment model?

Answer 37

1) investment model has been criticised because it is very difficult to measure the factors of commitment, satisfaction, investment and quality of alternatives, so testing these variables lacks reliability.

2) Lin criticises investment model because it does not take into account gender differences that might exists when looking at relationships. Lin found that females tend to report higher satisfaction, lower quality of alternatives, greater investments and stronger commitment in relationships compared to males.

Question 38

What is relationship breakdown?

Answer 38

Relationship breakdown or termination occurs when one or both people in the relationship feel that the relationship is not working, and therefore wish the relationship to end.

Question 39

What are the four phases in Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 39

1) intra-psychic processes
2) dyadic processes
3)social processes
4) grave dressing processes

Question 40

What are intra-psychic processes?

Answer 40

This is characterised by the dissatisfied partner privately thinking about their relationship and brooding about the problems they have identified. The unhappy partner focuses on their partner’s faults and the fact that they are under-benefitting from the relationship. They may feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner.

Question 41

What are dyadic processes?

Answer 41

The dissatisfied partner privately communicates with their partner about the fact that they are dissatisfied with the relationship. Both partners might think carefully about investments they
have in the relationships e.g. house, children, joint possessions etc. There could be reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the dissatisfied partner’s views and promises to change their behaviour or makes agreements to sort out issues. Marital therapy might be useful at this point if the process becomes difficult. The dissatisfied partner might still believe that, “I would be justified in withdrawing from the relationship”, in which case, the breakdown process would continue.

Question 42

What are social processes?

Answer 42

If there is a break up, it is made public to friends and family which means the problem is harder to deny or ignore. Advice and support is given from people outside the relationship and alliances are made. This can involve criticising former partners and scape-goating. Younger adults tend to experience breakdown more frequently than older couples.

Question 43

What are grave dressing processes?

Answer 43

As the relationship dies and breaks down, there is the need to mourn and justify our actions, we need to create an account of what the relationship was like and why it broke down. Ex partners being their post relationship lives and publicise accounts of how the relationship broke down, making sure their social credit remains high. Partners may reinterpret their point of view of their ex partners.

Question 44

Strengths of Duck’s phase model?

Answer 44

1) Duck’s phase model was devised in 1982. However, improvements have been made to the model as time has passed. Duck teamed up with a psychologist called Rookie in 2006 and introduced a 5th phase called resurrection phase where the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for New Romantic relationships.

2) Support for Duck’s phase model comes from social exchange theory. This theory would support Duck’s phase model and would state that if a relationship has high costs and minimal rewards, the relationship is not worth continuing and would breakdown.

Question 45

Weaknesses of Duck’s phase model?

Answer 45

1) Duck’s phase model ignores gender differences that exist when analysing the breakdown of relationship. Kassin found research evidence to suggest females emphasise unhappiness and lack of emotional support, and males state lack of sex/fun. Females often wish to stay friends with an ex, whereas males prefer a clean break.

2) Duck’s phase model could be viewed was overly simplistic. It reduces the complex phenomenon of relationship breakdown into 4 simple stages that follow a specific order. Relationship break down is very unpredictable, eg couples break up then make up and in the real world it is unlikely that relationship breakdown follows these exact stages.

Question 46

What is the difference between self disclosure in virtual and in person relationships?

Answer 46

Self disclosure tends to occur much faster in virtual relationships. This is due to the anonymity in virtual relationships, people tend to hold off disclosing personal information in real for the fear of ridicule or rejection, unless they’re confident that they can trust the person and information isn’t leaked to mutual friends however there is less risk of this in virtual relationships.

Question 47

What is the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 47

Walther proposed the hyperpersonal model of virtual relationships suggesting that, as self disclosure is virtual relationships happens faster than in person ones, virtual relationships become more intense and feel more intimate. They also end more quickly as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self disclosure for a long time.

Walther also suggest that virtual relationships may feel more intimate because it’s easier to manipulate self disclosure online than face to face. Particpants online have time to edit responses and present themselves in a more positive light. This is called selective self-presentation.

Question 48

Evaluation of hyperpersonal model?

Answer 48

1) Whitty and Joinson conducted research which demonstrates the effect of being online on self-disclosure. They discovered that in online discussion forums both questions and answers tend to be more direct ans intimate than everyday face to face interactions.

2) self disclosure varies depending on the online context. People disclose more on gaming sites than on dating websites as the latter is more likely to lead to face to face interactions in the future.

3) research has found relationships which begin online are more durable than other relationships rather than ending more quickly as the hyperpersonal model suggests due to the more open self-disclosure early on the relationship.

Question 49

What is reduced cue theory?

Answer 49

Spoull and Kiesler suggested that self disclosure is virtual relationships might be less open and honest than face to face ones. In real life we rely on subtle cues eg facial expressions which are absent in virtual relationship. Reduction in non-verbal communications lead to deindividuation because it dismissed people’s feelings of individual identity and brings on behaviours that people usually restrain themselves from displaying, such as aggression

Question 50

Evaluation of reduced cue theory?

Answer 50

• Reduced cue theory was developed when social media lacked face-to-face interaction, meaning they were much less rich in non-verbal communication than real life interactions. However, advanced technology allows for live interaction, which is much more similar to real life interactions.
• Non-verbal communication is not absent from virtual relationships, the cues are just different, e.g. emoticons are used as substitutes for facial expression and intonation. The timing of responses is also an important form of non-verbal communication (Walther and Tidwell 1995).

Question 51

Why is there an absence of gating in virtual relationships?

Answer 51

In real life our attraction is influenced by appearnace, mannerisms and factors such as age and ethnicity.

Being online removes factors that normally act as a barrier to interaction such as social awkwardness, physical attractiveness and distance. This creates more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships.

The absence of gating online also means people can establish virtual identities they could never create fact to face eg shy people can become more outgoing

Question 52

Strengths of gating in virtual relationships?

Answer 52

1) there are social benefits to the absence of gating in virtual relationships. For example the absence of gating could reduce loneliness by making it easier for people to access social interactions and seek out company. Rosenfeld and Thomas studied 4000 participants and found 72% with internet access were in relationships compared to 36% without internet access.

2) Zahoa et Al claims that the absence of gating has positive effects on people’s offline relationships. People create an online identity’s that is appreciated by others, and this enhances their overall self-image and increases the quality of face to face relationships as well.

Question 53

Weaknesses of gating in virtual relationships?

Answer 53

1) People Are involved in both online and offline relationships everyday and it’s not an either/or situation. This means there’re fewer differences between virtual and in person relationships than research seems to consider.

2) most of the research examining gating was conducted in the early 2000s. As technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online relationships; therefore, psychological research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it is published. This lowers the temporal validity of research into virtual relationships

Question 54

What are parasocial relationships?

Answer 54

Parasocial relationshops refer to one-sided relationships with a celebrity where a fan knows everything about the subject of their adoration and feel very close to them, but there is no chance of reciprocity.

Question 55

What are the levels of parasocial relationship?

Answer 55

1) entertainment-social- most people engage in parasocial relationshops at some point in their lives, but most stay at this level. Celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment and gossip.

2) intense-personal- this is a deeper level of parasocial relationship where the person has a private obsession with a celebrity. They have an intense interest in the celeb’s personal life eg dress sense, food they like and entertainment they take part in.

3) Borderline-pathological- this is the most intense level of parasocial relationships. At this level, the celebrity is worshipped and the individual as obsessive fantasies about the celebrity and spends lots of money on memorabilia. They may show extreme behaviours such as stalking.

Question 56

What is the absorption-addiction model?

Answer 56

The absorption addiction model by McCutcheon et Al argues that parasocial relationships focused on a celebrity make up for dissatisfaction in a person’s real life and relationships and provides them with a sense of identity.

People with an addictive nature will escalate through the levels of parasocial relationships until their parasocial relationships becomes a total pre-occupation with a celebrity’s life.

1) absorption- people with weaker personal identity may become totally preoccupied with the life of a celebrity and begin to identify with them.

2) addiction- the person seeks even greater involvement so the parasocial relationship becomes all consuming.

Question 57

What are strengths of the absorption addiction model?

Answer 57

1) research support found a link between loneliness and engaging in parasocial relationships. For example, greenwood and long found some evidence that people may develop parasocial relationships as a way of dealing with a recent loss or lonliness.

2) stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of stalking. Stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, isolation and loneliness.

Question 58

Weaknesses of absorption addiction model?

Answer 58

1) Most Research into parasocial relationships is correlational. This means that cause and effect cannot be established, lowering the scientific explanatory power. For example there is a correlation between poor body image and parasocial relationshops in teenage girls but we do not know which causes the other.

2) the absorption addiction model is better suited to describing levels of parasocial relationshops than explaining how people develop these attitudes. This model attempts to establish universal principles of behaviour and misses out the reasons for the behaviour.

Question 59

What is attachment theory in relationships?

Answer 59

Parasocial relationshops can be linked to attachment problems (insecure resistant) in childhood. Several characteristics of parasocial relationshops Are linked to attachment eg protest at the loss of a parasocial attachment figure is similar to seperation protest in infants.

Bowlby notes that failure to attach led to problems later in life eg affectionless psychopathy. People with childhood attachment problems form parasocial relationships to meet their need for attachment and they do not involve the same fear of rejection as real life relationships do.

Question 60

Strengths of attachment theory in parasocial relationships?

Answer 60

1) research has found that 63% of stalkers experienced loss of a primary caregiver in childhood usually from parental seperation. 50% reported childhood emotional, physical or sexual abuse from their primary caregivers supporting the idea that poor attachment in childhood links to forming parasocial relationships as an adult.

2) a study found adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes to obsessive behaviours and stalking. Pathological attachment types tend to engage in stalking which implies stalking is related to childhood attachment.

Question 61

Weaknesses of attachment theory in parasocial relationships?

Answer 61

1) research studies into the link between attachment type and parasocial relationships rely on participants memory about their early lives. Such recollections are likely to be false d because our memories of that past are not always accurate, meaning studies are not valid.

2) parasocial relationships can be positive and not just about fulfilling attachment needs. For example, they allow a safe exploration of emotions.