Approaches Flashcards
1
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Definition of psychology
A
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions; especially affecting behaviour in a given context
2
Q
Definition of a science
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A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover laws.
3
Q
Introspection definition
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The first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/ mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations.
4
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Who created introspection
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Wilhelm Wundt
5
Q
What was Wundt’s role in the development of psychology
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-Wundt founded the Institute of Experimental Psychology
- known as the father of Psychology and his ideas stem from philosophical roots
- in 1879, opened the first experimental psychological labratory in Leipzig, Germany . This lab was designed to aid the scientific study of psychology so results could be replicated.
- use of controlled conditions to establish general theories about mental processes.
- he wanted to focus on the psychological processes of perception and structuralism (theory of consciousness)
- he wanted to document introspection . He also wanted to investigate Psychology in the Same way as other sciences and helped develop cognitive psychology
- the partcipants had to focus on present experiences. Introspection involves a person saying everything that is going through their mind whilst they are doing an activity. This made the Research into introspection highly reliable so replication would be possible
6
Q
Advantages of introspection
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1) introspection has helped to develop other approaches in psychology such as behaviourism via Watson and the cognitive approach by beck. It helps form the basis of other models.
2) introspection can help establish what causes behaviour. If we know what causes behaviour to occur, then we can predict future behaviour. An example may be that if we know high levels of dopamine can cause OCD, then we can try ensure that dopamine levels are regulated and kept low to prevent OCD.
7
Q
Weaknesses of introspection
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1) Watson (1913) criticised Wundt’s idea of introspection and whether psychology was emerging as a science. Introspection provides subjective data that varies from one individual to the next, and therefore introspection is not objective or very reliable.
2) introspection can be criticised because it fails to explain how the mind works and the processes involved in thinking about a particular topic. Psychologists cannot see how the thoughts are generated and introspection cannot be properly observed.
8
Q
What is the behavioural approach
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A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observed in terms of learning
9
Q
What is classical conditioning
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This is learning based on association. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
10
Q
Research support for classical conditioning
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Conducted by Pavlov. He taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.
1) Food (UCS) produces salivation (UCR).
2) a Bell (neutral stimulus) is rung. The dog does not salivate
3) the Food (UCS) is repeatedly paired with the bell (NS) to produce salivation (UCR)
4) now if the bell (conditioned response) is rung alone, the dog will begin to salivate. Learning has taken place via classical conditioning and an association has been established between the bell ringing and the dog salivating.
11
Q
What is generalisation
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Similar stimuli to the orginal conditioned stimulus will cause the conditioned response. Eg for pavlov’s expeirment , a bell with a similar pitch or sound will cause salivation
12
Q
What is discrimination
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Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimuli will not produce the conditioned response. This can be done by withholding the unconditioned stimulus. Eg for pavlov’s experiment, withholding the Food after the Bell is rung.
13
Q
What is extinction
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The conditioned response is not produced because of the bell being rung. This occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly.
14
Q
Strengths of classical conditioning
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1) one strength of pavlov’s Research is That it has helped apply classical conditioning to treatments of psychological disorders. For example classical conditioning has helped form treatments such as flooding and systematic desensitisation.
2) a strength of the behavioural model is that it is a model that can be easily tested and measured in a scientific way by using observations in a labratory. The behavioural model relies on observing data in a highly controlled setting. This helps objectivity and replication.
15
Q
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
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1) one disadvantage of classical conditioning is that it can be viewed as deterministic because it ignores the role of free will in people’s behavioural responses. Classical conditions anticipates an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation which is not accurate. This can lead to explanations fir behaviour which are incomplete and inconsistent.
2) the psychologist Menzies criticises the behavioural model and classical conditioning. He studied people who had a phobia of water and found only 2% of his sample had encountered a negative experience with water (due to classical conditioning and learning). Therefore 98% of the sample had not learnt to become frightened of water.
16
Q
Operant conditioning definition
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A Form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences. The consequences include punishment, positive and negative reinforcement.
17
Q
What is positive reinforcement
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You receive something positive when carrying out a behaviour. For example getting a sticker for completing homework.
18
Q
What is negative reinforcement
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This is where you perform A behaviour in order to avoid something unpleasant and therefore the behaviour continues in the future. For example doing homework to avoid detention.
19
Q
Operant conditioning Research support procedure
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Conducted by skinned.
The skinnner box was a cage with loud speakers, lights, a lever, a door and a floor which could be electrified.
One hungry rate at a time would be placed in the body and would be allowed to freely run round.
The rat might accidentally press the lever which resulted in a Food pellet and the rat learns pressing the lever leads to reward (positive reinforcement)
The rat could also avoid being shocked by pressing the lever. (Negative reinforcement)
20
Q
Strengths of operant conditioning
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1) Research evidence to support operant conditioning in real life. Token economy is used in institutions as a form of behaviour modification. It works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged for privileges. Paul and Lentz used token economy to treat patients with schizophrenia and it was found their behaviour became more appropriate.
2) a strength of skinner’s Research is That he relied on the experimental method. He used highly controlled conditions to discover the relationships between variables so that he could establish a cause and effect relationship eg pressing the level causes the rat to learn Food will arrive.
21
Q
Weaknesses of operant conditioning
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1) skinners Research ignores the concept of free will. He suggests past experiences involving operant conditioning will affect future behaviour, and people/animals have no control over the behaviours they show. This is a deterministic view of behaviour.
2) the skinned box has been criticised in terms of ethical issues. Rats and pigeons were often placed in the box in stressful and aversive conditions which could have a negative effect upon the Psychological and psychical health of the animals.
3) it is also difficult to generalise the results gained from rats and pigeons to humans. Animals are very different to humans, and therefore the results that skinner gained from his experiments might not be applicable to humans.
22
Q
What is social learning theory
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New patterns of behaviour can be acquired/learnt by observing the behaviour of others.
23
Q
Who explained how social learning theory work
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Bandura (1977)
24
Q
Key steps devised by Bandura for social learning theory
A
1) modelling
2) imitation
3) identification
4) vicarious reinforcement
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What is modelling
Modelling - social learning requires a person to model or carry out the behaviour, so that the observer can learn the behaviour. Model can be a parent or tv character etc. Models provide examples of behaviour which can be learned by imitation
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What is imitation
Children learn behaviours via imitation That are modelled by significant others and this process tends to be more rapid than classical/operant conditioning. Determinants on whether a behaviour is imitated are:
- characteristics of the model (age, gender etc)
- observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour shown
- the observed consequence of behaviour (positive or negative)
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What is identification
This is the extent to which the observer relates to the model and feels that he/She is similar to them so that they could experience the same outcomes as the model. Children are likely to identify with models of the same gender in order for social learning to be effective.
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What is vicarious reinforcement
Children who observed a model who got rewarded for showing aggressive behaviour were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour. This shows that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishment directly in order to learn new behaviours.
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What does mediational processes involve
1) attention - the observer must pay attention and notice the behaviour of the model
2) retention - the observer must remember the behaviour of the model
3) motor reproduction - the observer must be able to perform the behaviour
4) motivation - the observer must be willing to perform the behaviour in light of rewards
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Strengths of the social learning theory by Bandura
1) it has provided great understanding on how criminal behaviour is learnt. Akers (1998) found that criminals seem to engage in more criminal behaviour when they are exposed to a model that they can highly identify with eg Same age/gender.
2) social learning theory is good because it gives a more comprehensive view of human learning when compared to operant and classical conditioning. Social learning theory recognises the importance of both behaviourial and cognitive factors when examining how people learn new behaviours.
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Weaknesses of social learning theory by Bandura
1) social learning theory can be criticised as it does not take into account cause and effect. For instance, Research has found that increased associations with peers can increases likelihood of delinquent behaviour in young people through learning poor behaviour. However we cannot assume that this is the lone cause. Other factors such as poor attitudes also can affect delinquency.
2) another weakness is that it ignores other potential influences on behaviour. For example it ignores the role of biology or genetics which could cause people to behave in certain ways. For example, Bandura found in his experiment that boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of the experimental situation they were in.
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Bandura’s Research support on Social learning theory
Called the bobo doll experiment
- Bandura conducted an observational study involving 36 male and 36 female children aged 37-69 months.
- they were shows an aggressive/non aggressive female/male model who was interacting with a bobo doll.
- after the children had seen the aggressive acts, they were made to feel frustrated by showing them toys that they were not allowed to play with.
- the children were taken one by one into a room which had some toys including a bobo doll and were observed for 20 minutes.
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Results of the bobo doll experiment
1) the Children who observed the aggressive model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll, whereas children who were shown the non aggressive model showed no aggression towards the bobo doll.
2) 33% of children who had observed/heard verbal aggression repeated what they had seen/heard. 0% of the non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression
3) in a follow up study, the children observed a model being rewarded for being aggressive to the bobo doll and this increased the likelihood that children were also aggressive to the bobo doll.
4) Boys seem to be more aggressive than girls and imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer.
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Strengths of bandura’s bobo doll experiment
1) it was conducted in a laboratory setting so is highly controlled to ensure that the independent variable had an effect on the dependant variable. It also ensures that the Study is highly reliable and the results are likely to be replicated in the future.
2) it provides good evidence that social learning theory is a powerful way for children to learn new behaviours. This has the implication that we should be aware of the role of media eg video games in young children as they may be easily influenced by what they see in tv and may imitate aggressive behaviours.
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Weaknesses of bandura’s bobo doll experiment
1) As it was conducted in a lab setting, the results gained may not be able to be generalised to the wider population and may lack ecological validity. Also observational Research has the limitation That participants may show demand characteristics and guess the aim and distort they behaviour giving invalid results on social learning theory.
2) the bobo doll experiment only examines the short term effects of social learning theory . We do not know whether the children left the experiment and behaved aggressively in the future, so we do not know how influential social learning theory is.
36
What is the cognitive approach
- cognitive psychologists investigate internal mental processs by using methods of lab and field experiments.
- They make inferences about cognitive internal processes.
- the information processing model is used to compare the processing of the mind to a computer.
- Models eg the working memory model can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made.
- Behaviour influenced by thoughts are both unconscious and conscious.
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What are Schemas
- Schemas Are Information That Are developed through experience and expectations of How we should behave.
- they help us organise vast amounts of information by acting as a ”shortcut”.
-Schemas can cause us to exclude anything that does not conform to our ideas on the world.
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What are the two types of schema
1) role schema - a schema about behaviour expected from someone in a particular role.
2)event Schema - a Schema about what to expect from an event.
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Strengths of the cognitive approach
1) it has many different applications in psychology. For example it has helped in the development of cognitive neuroscience as well as therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy. It can explain the development of faulty thinking which can aid the understanding of abnormal psychology eg phobias.
2) it emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that there is a high level of control to help establish cause and effect relationships. So Research is more objective and scientific.
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Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
1) one criticism is the idea of soft determinism. The cognitive approach views behaviour as being determined by internal cognitive factors but ignores biology or the environment. There is lots of evidence to suggest that genetics has an effect on cognitive thinking.
2) it can be criticised because it does not give a full picture of what goes on inside the mind. Psychologists still make inferences which might be based on limited information from experiments. It is questionable whether psychologists Van understand thinking based on inferences alone.
41
Study into the role of Schemas
- conducted by Bartlett (1932)
- conducted in a lab setting
- English participants were asked to read a Native American folk tale called “the war of the ghosts”, which was unfamiliar and Stange As it had a very different Culture to England.
- participants read the story and were asked to recall After different lengths of time.
- results found that the participants changed the story to fit their own Schema. They made it more logical, and changes were made eg “canoes” to “cars”
- as more time passed, participants forgot more information.
- people use their own Schemas to help remember Information and it is dependant on culture to an extent.
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Strengths of the Study “the war of the ghosts”
1) The study was conducted in a laboratory setting which is an advantage. This is because the setting and the IV can be highly controlled in order to accurately measure schemas and internal cognitive processes. The results are likely to be highly reliable if the study was to be repeated again (+)
2) The study has the strength of confirming how important schema theory is when investigating internal mental cognitive processes. It seems that people will recall information in a way that fits in with their schema. This could have implications when asking people to recall information for eye witness testimony and court proceedings. People might distort their memories according to their schemas, but now psychologists are aware of this issue, they can ensure this does not happen (+)
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Weaknesses of the Study “the war of the ghosts”
1) The study can be criticised because the participants might have affected by demand characteristics. They might have guessed the aim of the study and might have altered their responses accordingly which might mean that the study and the results are not very valid. This might lead psychologist to question the results in relation to schemas and internal cognitive processes (-)
2) The study can be criticised because of the biased sample that was used. The study only used English participants which cannot be generalised to other samples from around the world. Therefore the results are quite narrow and biased and do not give a holistic view of different cultures and how their schemas and internal cognitive processes might operate. (-)
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What is the information processing model
1) input - our senses encode information from the environment
2) processing - the information is processed via Schemas
3) output - a behaviourial response occurs.
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The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
- cognitive neuroscience Looks at the biological basis of thought processes. It combines the cognitive approach with some elements of the biological approach.
- the mind is like a computer and cognitive neuroscience tends to use Computer generated Models which can read the brain and help develop mind mapping and brain finger printing.
- cognitive neuroscientists use different methods to study the brain eg using FMRI scans and PET scans to get detailed information about mental processing.
- by miller
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Cognitive neuroscience definition
The scientific study of the influence of the brain structure on mental processes. Areas of the Brain can be mapped to locate specific cognitive functions.
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Strengths of emergence of cognitive neuroscience
1) one strength is that it is very dominant today in psychology . For example cognitive psychology has helped contribute to the development of artificial intelligence and “thinking” machines such as robots.
2) it focuses on theoretical Computer Models and so emphasises methods such as lab experiments when collecting data. This means that High levels of control can be exercised and cause and effect relationships can be established between independent and dependant variable.
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Weaknesses of the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
1) it can be criticised as it is not accurate to compare humans to computers . Computers Are objects That Are mechanistic and have no free will, whereas humans do. There are too many differences so must be aware when applying cognitive neuroscience to humans.
2) the cognitive approach can be criticised because of the use of Computers Models. This is because These Models over simplify behaviour being examined a d reduce it down to simple steps which can be regarded as reductionist. For example the role of emotion is overlooked.
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Definition of genetics
The extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or the environment
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Definition of genotype
The genetic code written in the DNA of individual cells, which are inherited from biological parents. Genotype consists of genes a person possesses and can be dominant or recessive.
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Definition of phenotype
The characteristics of an individual is determined by expression of physical , behaviourial and psychological traits. Genotype + environmental factors = phenotype.
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How do psychologists research genetics ?
Individuals may inherit certain characteristics which are carried on genes. Psychologists research genetics by studying twins (monozygotic identical or dizygotic non-identical).
- twin studies allow psychologists to look at concordance rates between twins.
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Strengths of genetics
1) an advantage of examining genes and the role they have on behaviour is that gene mapping can help psychologists locate genes on chromosomes which is highly scientific and objective. Therefore investigating genes involves precise methods of investigation which would be supported by science.
2) genetics has the advantage in that it can help psychologists screen people to see if they carry genes for certain illnesses. This would involve gene manpoing ans can help identify individuals at risk of diseases such as depression or forms of cancer. This means that people can get psychological help before they become unwell.
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Weaknesses of genetics
1) a disadvantage when examining the role of genetics is that it is reductionist. It takes a complex human behaviour such as IQ and reduces it down to small components alone such as genes. This idea seems inaccurate as IQ is not solely dependant on genes; other factors need to be included such as the environment.
2) the role of genes and its effects on behaviour are criticised because it ignores other models and approaches in psychology. For example cognitive and behaviourial approaches would also need to be considered when examining behaviour. An example is that someone who has depression might carry the gene for depression but might also have negative conditions that are ignored.
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Evolution by Charles Darwin
Darwin focused on natural selection. The genetic makeup of an individual can undergo a mutation due to a factor in the environment, and this could lead ti a characteristic change occuring in future generations of offspring.
The mutation may allow the individual to have an advantageous characteristic which may mean that survival chances are greater, so they are more likely to reproduce and the mutation is passed on and is adaptive.
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Strengths of the evolutionary approach
1) evolutionary ideas can be supported by the nature side of the nature and nurture debate. The evolutionary approach states that our biology ans interactions with the environment have a direct effect on our behaviour, for instance giraffes have got long necks so they can reach their Food.
2) the evolutionary approach is heavily supported by the work of Charles Darwin and survival of the fittest. This can help explain how certain traits become more adaptive within a species such as males being very tall or giraffes having long necks.
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Weaknesses of the evolutionary approach
1) one Problem with the idea of evolution is that it does not clearly explain some behaviours and how or why they might be adaptive. For instance OCD is found to be genetic, but it is not clear How OCD can be adaptive and aid survival of the fittest. It is not very clear or well explained.
2)the idea of evolution can be criticised because it ignores behaviourial and cognitive explanations for behaviour. The idea of every species wishing to reproduce and aid survival seems to take away the idea of free will and cognitions, whereby Not all members of a species have this drive of will make such decisions.
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What are the biological structures in the body?
1) neurones and the nervous system. It is split into the CNS which consists of the brain and spinal cord and controls breathing and heart rate, and the PNS which sends ans receives messages from the CNS to other parts of the body. Neurones transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals.
2) the brain which consists of the left and right hemisphere and it total has 4 lobes.
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What are the four lobes in the brain + their function
1) parietal lobe - primarily responsible for receiving and processing sensory input such as touch, pressure, heat, pain etc.
2) Frontal lobe - this is important for voluntary movement, expressive language and managing higher level executive functions.
3) Temporal lobe - responsible for interpreting information from auditory stimuli. Also involved in memory and emotion.
4) Occipital lobe - responsible for processing visual information and memory formation.
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Strength of biological structures
1) the biological model has strengths in that the study of the brain relies on use of scans, such as PET and MRI. Post mortem studies are also used which adds to the scientific evidence to support the biological model. It can be viewed as one of the most scientific approaches.
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Weaknesses of biological structures
1) it can be criticised because it is more applicable at explaining the causes of some behaviours, but not others. For instance neuroanatomy of the brain can cause schizophrenia, but some behaviours that cannot be well explained by these ideas eg the development of phobias is usually learnt.
2) cause ans effect is a disadvantage when looking at biological structures. For instance can psychologists be sure that a brain malfunction is causing a behaviour to occur eg a smaller hypothalamus causing schizophrenia.
3) a problem of studying the brain is that psychologists still do not know 100% about the brain and it’s functions. Therefore there could be problems of trying to identify which part of the brain is responsible for certain behaviours.
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How does neurochemistry affect behaviour?
- Hormones such as testosterone travel in the blood stream. The endocrine system is responsible for producing hormones in the body. For instance Hugh levels of testosterone might increase aggression levels.
-Neurotransmitters defined as “brain chemicals that communicate information throughout our brain and body. They relay signals between nerve cells, called neurons”
- in the brain transmission of neurotransmitters occurs via cerebral fluid. For instance high dopamine causes schizophrenia.
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Strengths of neurochemistry
1) neurotransmitters can be measured objectively and scientifically which is a strength. For instance dopamine can be measured by inserting a needle in the spine and extracting spinal plasma fluid. This means we can obtain objective and scientific measurements.
2) a strength of neurotransmitters is that if we know that a lack/excess of a particular neurotransmitter has an effect on behaviour eg low levels of serotonin cause depression, then we can look for relevant treatments that can help solve the issue. For instance giving depressed people SSRI drugs that increase serotonin.
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Weaknesses of neurochemistry
1) one negative point of neurochemistry is that cause and effect needs to be identified. We are not sure that high/low levels of neurotransmitters actually cause a change in behaviour of it is the other way round.
2) neurotransmitters can be viewed as reductionist which can be a disadvantage. To say that complex human behaviour can be affected by neurotransmitters alone is too simplistic and inaccurate, for instance is depression really only caused by low serotonin.
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Role of genetics study
Gottesman conducted a meta-analysis of approximately 40 twin studies.
He found that having an identical twin with schizophrenia gave you a 48% chance of developing the condition.
This was reduced to 17% in non-identical twins so shows schizophrenia has strong genetic basis.
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Evaluation of Gottesman’s twin study
1) it was a longtitudinal study so the schizophrenic patients could be tracked over long periods of time to see the development of the illness. This is very useful when investigating the effects of genetics as it can help establish other factors that cause schizophrenia.
2) it ignores the behaviourial approach when examining causes of schizophrenia. Identical twins often copy each other behaviour so could suggest that the healthy twin modelled the schizophrenic behaviour rather than getting the illness by genetics.
3) the research could be criticised because it relied on interviews with patients. Schizophrenic patients often have difficulty with speech so patients may have found it difficult to communicate their symptoms effectively to the psychologists.
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Study for cognitive neuroscience / brain structure
Maguire carried out MRI scans on 16 licensed male London taxi drivers and were compared to a control group who had never driven taxis.
The average age was 44 and all drivers had been drivers for at least 18 months.
The average size of the right posterior hippocampus was significantly larger in the taxi driver group than the control group. Also the longer they had worked, the greater the size.
This shows how the right posterior hippocampus is responsible for storing a spatial representation of the environment.
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Evaluation of maguire’s taxi driver study
1) it combines both cognitive and biological factors to help explain internal thought processes. The use of MRI scanning makes the research scientific and objective and emphasises how the brain is like a muscle.
2) there is research evidence to support that the right posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial awareness. Previous rodent and monkey studies have found the hippocampus to be involved in spatial navigation. This shows the functionality of the brain is similar across many species.
3) it lacks population validity as it was only conducted on male drivers so results cannot be generalised to females. Individual differences are a key factor when examining cognitive functions and cannot be ignored.
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What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
1) the driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind
2) instincts and drives motivate our behaviour
3) early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are.
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What are the 3 levels of the mind + their roles
1) conscious mind- contains thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of
2) pre conscious mind- contains thoughts, feeling and memories that a person could access If they wanted to.
3) unconscious mind - the part of the mind that is inaccessible.
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What is the role of the unconscious?
1) Freud believed that the most of our everyday behaviours are controlled by the unconscious mind which reveal itself in Freudian slips (slips of the tongue), in creativity and in neurotic symptoms.
2) the unconscious is the motivating force behind our behaviour/ personality.
3) the unconscious protects the conscious self from trauma/anxiety/fear/conflict. Traumatic memories drive our behaviour.
4) the underlying unconscious drive is sexual.
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What is free association?
A form of psychoanalysis. A person in therapy is encouraged to verbalise all thoughts that come to mind. This helps uncover random associations and reveal repressed memories or emotions.
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What is dream interpretation?
Freud said that all dreams are a form of wish-fulfilment of repressed wishes and desires from the unconscious mind.
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What is the structure of personality
Personality has a tripartite structure, made of the Id, the Ego and the Superego. Experience and conflict in childhood shape the development of the three parts, affecting how a person behaves.
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What is the Id?
1) the Id is formed between birth and 18 months of age
2) it is in the unconscious mind and focuses of the self, and is irrational + emotional
3) it deals with feelings and needs and seeks pleasure
4) it operates on the pleasure principle.
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What is the Ego
1) the ego is formed from 18 months to 3 years of age
2) it is in the conscious mind
3) it is rational and obtains a balance between the Id and the superego
4) it operates on the reality principle
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What is the superego?
1) the superego is formed between 3 and 6 years of age
2) it is in the unconscious mind
3) it acts as a conscience or moral guide based on parental or societal values.
4) it operates on the morality principle
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What are defence mechanisms?
These stop an individual from becoming consciously aware of any unpleasant thoughts, feelings, or memories that they may be experiencing
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Examples of defence mechanisms
1) repression - this is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. These repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour. For example a person who was abused as a child may not remember abuse but struggle to form adult relationships.
2) denial- this is the refusal to accept reality to avoid dealing with painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic event. For example an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.
3) displacement - this occurs when the focus of a strong emotion eg anger is expressed on an alternative person or object. For example a person who has been given a detention by the teacher might Koch their locker in anger.
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How do the psychosexual stages affect personality?
1) Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages (psychosexual stages).
2) these stages emphasise that the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido)
3) at each stage, energy is expressed in different ways by different parts of the body.
4) if a child experienced too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, fixation could occur in the child’s later personality and show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred.
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What are the psychosexual stages?
1) oral (0-1yrs) - focus of pleasure is the mouth and the control of sucking, tasting and biting. If resolved, the individual is trusting and can accept and receive affection. If unresolved, can lead to oral fixation eg smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical.
2) Anal (1-3yrs)- focus of pleasure is the anus. The child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. If resolved, the individual can deal with authority figures. If unresolved, can lead to anal retentive personality (perfectionist and obsessive) or anal expulsive personality (thoughtless and messsy)
3) Phallic (3-5yrs) - focus in pleasure is the genital area. Child experiences Oedipus or Electra complex. If resolved, the individual adopts behaviours of the same sex. If unresolved, they become narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual.
4) latent (6-12yrs) - focus on the mastery of the world and social relationships. Earlier conflicts are repressed/resolved and early years are forgotten.
5) Genital (12yrs+)- sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. If resolved, the individual is a well adjusted adult. Is unresolved, they have difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
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What is the Oedipus complex?
During the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a hatred for their rival, their father. Fearing their father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father. In doing so, they internalise their gender role and moral values (his superego).
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What is the electra complex?
During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy, so desire their father. They also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this. Over time, girls give up their desire for their father and replace this with desire for a baby. In turn they identify with their mother, and internalise her gender role and moral values (her superego)
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Strengths of the psychodynamic approach
1) a strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it led to the development of psychoanalysis, a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. This laid the foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.
2) research conducted by Caspi supports freud’s work. Caspi found that the role of childhood personality had an impact on later life. Children who had an inhibited personality at age 3 tended to become depressed adults by age 21. Children who were impulsive and lacked control at age 3, tended to develop antisocial personality disorder by age 21.
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Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?
1) the key concepts of the psychodynamic approach such as the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability becahxe they are unconscious processes and therefore difficult to test. They cannot be seen, measured or observed and are not very scientific or objective.
2) the psychodynamic approach can be criticised because Freud tends to focus on childhood traumas and problems that a patient might have had, and this is seen as the cause of abnormality. Freud would ignore current problems that a patient is having and focuses on childhood alone, so is deterministic.
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What is the humanistic approach?
Psychology should study the whole person as everyone is unique. People have free will to make their own decisions in life.
The scientific method is too objective because methods fail to acknowledge the subjective experience of the individual
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What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
A persona most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom and the most advanced needs are at the top. Each level must be fulfilled before moving onto the next. People are motivated to achieve progression through the levels. The more basic the need, the more difficult it is to ignore.
1) physiological needs- food water, warmth, rest
2) safety needs - security
3) belongingness and love needs - intimate relationships / friends
4) esteem needs - feeling of accomplishment
5) self actualisation - acheiving one’s full potential
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What is self actualisation?
When a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves.
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How do you know if you’ve reached self-actualisation?
1) Maslow found that most of those who attained self actualisation were creative and had an accurate perception of the world around them.
2) individuals experienced self-actualisation in the form of peak experiences where they are able to leave all doubts, fears and inhibitions behind
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What is the focus on the self by Rogers ?
1) focus on the concept of self and self acceptance
2) people have two basic needs, positive regard from others and feeling of self worth
3) feelings of self worth develop in childhood as a result of chikd’s interactions with parents.
4) positive regard may be unconditional (when a person is accepted for who they are) or conditional
5) when a person experiences conditional positive regard, they develop conditions of worth which have to be met to be accepted by others.
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What is congruence?
When there is a similarity between a person’s perceived self and their ideal self
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What is incongruence?
When there is a difference between the perceived self and ideal self. This can lead to negative feelings of self worth.
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What is counselling psychology?
1) rogers claimed that an individual’s psychological problems were a result of conditional positive regard they received from others.
2) this can be overcome with counselling and guiding them towards self actualisation
3) therapists provide unconditional positive regard and by creating a supportive environment, this helps dissolve the client’s conditions of worth.
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Strengths of the humanistic approach?
1) there is supporting evidence about the role of conditions of worth by Harter et Al. They found that teenagers that felt they had to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval, frequently end up not liking themselves, and were more likely to develop depression. Therefore conditions of worth are important for mental health.
2) another strength is that it focuses in personal growth. Humanistic approach focuses on self-actualisation and personal development. It helps people uncover their authentic selves and realise their full potential.
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Weaknesses of the humanistic approach?
1) one weakness of the humanistic approach is that it lacks scientific rigour. It proposes that we should study the whole person because each individual is unique. However science relies on reductionism so that components can be studied objectively.
2) a problem with the humanistic approach is that concepts such as self actualisation lack operationalisation. There is no objective measure of whether someone has self-actualised leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims.
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What 6 factors do you compare with approaches?
1) free will vs determinism
2) nature vs nurture
3) reductionism vs Holism
4) idiographic vs nomothetic
5) scientific vs not scientific
6) applications
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Comparison of approaches for behaviourist approach?
1) environmental determinism- behaviour is only controlled by stimulus-response association.
2) nurture - Humans are born as a “blank slate” so all behaviour is learned.
3) environmental reductionism - behaviour is broken down into stimulus-response association.
4) nomothetic- creates universal laws as people learn through either association or consequence.
5) scientific - utilised scientific methods eg lab experiments. Also used animal research.
6) applications - token economy for behaviour management. Systematic desensitisation and flooding for treatment of phobias.
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Comparison of approaches for social learning theory?
1) soft determinism- behaviour is influenced by environmental forces but humans have some free fill.
2) nurture- behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of models
3) holistic- takes into account both behaviourial and cognitive factors in behaviour.
4) nomothetic- attempts to establish general laws (eg vicarious reinforcement).
5) mostly scientific- utilises scientfific methods but also considered subjective mediational processes.
6) applications - age rating on films and games
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Comparison of approaches for cognitive approach?
1) soft determinism- behaviour can be controlled by schemas etc. however individuals choose what information they attend to.
2) nature and nurture - behaviour is the product of information processing (nature) which can be modified by experience (nurture)
3) holistic/ machine reductionism- compares mind to computer, however still includes ideas of both nature and nurture.
4) nomothetic and idiographic- attempts to establish general laws (eg through theoretical models) however also utilises case studies (eg H.M and KF).
5) mostly scientific - utilises scientific methods (eg lab experiments) but also researchers concepts are not directly observable so inferences are made such can be cognitive errors.
6) applications - cognitive behavioural therapy eg rational emotive behavioural therapy and anger management.
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Comparison of approaches for biological approach?
1) biological determinism- behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors eg genes, and neurochemistry.
2) nature - behaviour is a result of innate biological factors eg genes
3) biological reductionism - behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes
4) nomothetic- creates universal laws as humans share similar physiology
5) scientific- promotes scientific methods eg brain scanning. Also uses animal research.
6) applications- drug treatments eg SSRIs for depression.
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Comparison of approaches for psychodynamic approach?
1) psychic determinism- behaviour is determined by unconscious instincts and drives.
2) nature and nurture - behaviour is the product of innate drives (nature) as well as childhood experiences (nurture).
3) holistic- proposes that personality is the dynamic interaction between instincts, drives and childhood experiences.
4) nomothetic and idiographic - attempts to establish general laws (eg psychosexual stages) but also utilises case studies and considering unique childhood experiences.
5) not scientific - examines concepts that cannot be empirically tested eg repressed memories. Relies on subjective interpretation of case studies.
6) applications- psychotherapy
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Comparison of approaches for humanistic approach?
1) free will- humans control their own behaviour.
2) nurture- behaviour is shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self actualisation.
3) holistic - focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience.
4) idiographic - focuses on the subjective human experience, and recognises everyone is unique.
5) not scientific- rejects scientific methods and therefore unable to provide empirical evidence
6) applications - counselling
