Issues and debates

Question 1

What is universitality?

Answer 1

The conclusions from research can be applied to everyone, anywhere regardless of time, culture or gender.

Question 2

What is gender bias?

Answer 2

Gender bias is when psychological research may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience of men and women, usually women.

Question 3

What is alpha bias + example?

Answer 3

Alpha bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers overestimate the differences between genders.

An example is the evolutionary explanation of relationships where it argues that a male’s best interest is to impregnate as many women as possible but for women, it argues they should focus on the healthy survival of their few children, so women who engage in the same behaviour as men will be seen as abnormal.

Question 4

What is beta bias + example?

Answer 4

Beta bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers underestimate gender differences. This often happens when female participants are not included in the study, but assume that findings apply to both genders. This leads to androcentrism.

An example is the fight or flight response. First it was assumed that it would be a universal response, but Taylor et Al found women actually have the tendency to tend and befriend instead.

Question 5

What is androcentrism?

Answer 5

This is a male based view of the world. Male behaviour are judged to be the norm. Female behaviour are judged to be abnormal.

Question 6

Strengths of gender bias?

Answer 6

1) male researcher within psychology are still more likely to have their reasearch published than female researchers, and research with gender differences is more likely to be published than research that has no differences. Psychology may be guilty of supporting institutional sexism.

2) gender biased research may provide scientific justification for denying women opportunities within society. In the 1930s “scientific” research revealed that intellectual activity eg attending university would shrivel a women’s ovaries and reduce their chances of conceiving.

Question 7

Weaknesses of gender bias?

Answer 7

1) many modern researchers have begun to recognise the effect that their own values and assumptions have on their work. Dambrin and lambert included a reflection of how their own gender related experiences affecting their reading of events when investigating the lack of women in accountancy firms.

2) gender bias can be avoided. Researchers should not extrapolate findings form research with males to females and vice versa. Studies should include both male and female participants and this applies to researchers too. Researchers should also be sensitive to male ans female standards when designing research.

Question 8

What is cultural bias?

Answer 8

Cultural bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions. If the norm for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour will be seen as abnormal or inferior.

Question 9

What are some examples of cultural bias?

Answer 9

1) Milgram’s obedience study- in America, 65% of participants shocked all the way, in Germany, 85% of participants shocked all the way and in Australia it was 28% rate of obedience.

2) Asch’s Study for conformity. Dependant on collectivist and individualistic cultures.

Question 10

How can you reduce cultural bias?

Answer 10

1) researchers should not attempt to extrapolate findings or theories to other cultures not represented in research

2) they should use researchers native to the culture being investigated

3) they should carry out cross-cultural research and be sensitive to cultural norms when designing research.

Question 11

What is ethnocentrism + example?

Answer 11

Ethnocentrism is emphasising the importance of the behaviour of one’s own culture. In psychological research this is communicated through a view that any behaviours that do not conform to the (usually western) model are somehow deficient or underdeveloped.

Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation assumed that a securely attached child would show moderate distress when their caregiver left them and that this didn’t happen if the child was insecurely attached. This means that German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting because their babies did not show mild distress, when it could be interpreted as German mothers encouraging independence.

Question 12

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 12

This is the idea that behaviour varies between cultures. A behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the culture in which it occurs.

Question 13

Strengths of cultural bias?

Answer 13

1) Cochrane and Sashidharan found that African- Caribbean immigrants are 7x more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness. This has many to question the validity of the DSM and ICD for diagnosing individuals who are born outside the culture that they were developed in.

2) There are mental illnesses in some cultures that do not exist in others. For example, the term brain fag is used in west Africa to describe a person who is experiencing difficulty concentrating and thinking. In China a man who believes his penis is retracting into his body is diagnosed with koro.

Question 14

Weaknesses of cultural bias?

Answer 14

1) there is evidence that some human behaviours are universal. For example, the basic facial expressions for emotions such as happiness or disgust are the same in all cultures, and even in the animal kingdom. Also interactional synchrony between an infant and their caregiver has been observed in many cultures.

2) Cross cultural research is a way to prevent cultural bias in psychology. This shows that knowledge and concepts that we take for granted are not shared by other people around the world. This not only counters the charge of scientific racism that has been made against some psychological theories in the past, it means that conclusions the psychologists draw are likely to have more validity.

Question 15

What is free will?

Answer 15

The notion of free will suggests that as human beings we are essentially self -determining and able to choose our thoughts and actions. This links to the humanistic approach.

Question 16

What is determinism?

Answer 16

The general idea that our traits and behaviours are outside of our control due to either internal or external factors over which we have no control

Question 17

What is hard determinism?

Answer 17

This proposes that all of a person’s traits and behaviours are entirely out the individuals control.

Question 18

What is soft determinism?

Answer 18

This proposes that traits and behaviours are determined by external or internal forces but that an individual can still exercise some control via thought processes. The cognitive approach is linked to this.

Question 19

What is biological determinism?

Answer 19

The biological approach argues that all of our traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors like genes, neurochemistry, brain structure etc.

Question 20

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 20

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as experiences, upbringing, parents etc. This links to the behavioural approach

Question 21

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 21

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives. The psychodynamic approach sees human behaviour as determined and directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood

Question 22

What is scientific emphasis on causal explanations?

Answer 22

1) all variables are controlled except for the independent variable
2 this means any change in the dependant variable must be due to the independent variable
3) the use of controls helps researchers determine cause and effect

Question 23

Strengths of determinism?

Answer 23

1) Chun Siong soon et al have demonstrated that the brain activity that determines simple choices occurs before we are even aware that we have made a choice. Participants were asked to decide whether to push a button with their right or left hand. Brain imaging revealed that they made their decision up to 10 seconds before they were consciously aware of it.

2) the prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefitted many people. For example, psychotherapeutic drug treatment in managing schizophrenia. Disorders like schizophrenia cast doubt on concept of free will as no one would choose to have schizophrenia .

Question 24

Weaknesses of determinism?

Answer 24

1) The idea of free will have more face validity than determinism. Everyday experiences gives people the impression that they are constantly exercising free will through the choices they make on any given day.

2) People with internal locus of control who believe they have a high degrees of control over their behaviour are more mentally healthy. Roberts et al demonstrated that adolescents who had a strong belief that their lives were determined by events outside of their control were at higher risk of developing depression. Thinking we have free will has a positive impact on our mind and behaviour.

Question 25

What is the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 25

The nature vs nurture debate concerns the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour. The nature perspective assumes that hereditary (genetics) plays a more significant role. The nurture perspective assumes the environment and experience are more influential.

Question 26

What is the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate + example?

Answer 26

The nature side of the debate is rooted in nativist theory, which suggests that knowledge and abilities are innate. The biological approach explain behaviour through genetics. Schizophrenia concordance rates are 40% in monozygotic twins but only 7% in dizygotic twins, suggesting a strong genetic influence.

Question 27

What is the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate + example?

Answer 27

The nurture side of the debate is based on the empiricist theory, which argues that knowledge comes from learning and experience. JohnLocke described the mind as a “tabula rasa” (a blank slate), shaped entirely by experienced. The behavioural approach suggests that all behaviour is learned through experience. For example, babies form attachments by associating their mothers with food (classical conditioning).

Question 28

What is the interactionist approach?

Answer 28

This is where behaviour is influenced by both nature and nurture, and that it is not solely one or other other that is responsible for behaviour.

Question 29

Evaluation (weaknesses) of the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 29

1) the interactionist approach suggests that nature and nurture are inseparable. For instance IQ heritability is around 0.5, meaning both genetics and environment play key roles in intelligence. 2) diathesis-stress models explain how mental illness as an interaction between genetic vulnerability and environmental triggers. Tienari et al found that Finnish adoptees were most as risk of schizophrenia when they had both a genetic predisposition and dysfunctional adoptive family relationships. 3) Plomin’s Niche-picking theory suggests that individuals actively select environments that align with their genetic traits, reinforcing their natural tendencies and shaping their development. 4) nurture can influence nature. Maguire et al found that London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus than a control group. The hippocampus, which deals with spatial memory, adapted to the drivers’ increased use of navigational skills. This suggests that the brain changes in response to experience rather than being solely determined by genetics.

Question 30

What is reductionism?

Answer 30

Reductionism is the concept of explaining behaviour by breaking it down into smaller, more fundamental components. It operates within a hierarchical structure, moving from extreme reductionism in the hard sciences to broader explanations in psychology and sociology.

Question 31

What is the hierarchal structure of reductionism?

Answer 31

Highest level: sociological level- cultural and social explanations of behaviour. Middle level: psychological level- behavioural and cognitive explanations. Lowest level: biological level - physiological explanations. This is the most extreme form of reductionism, as it breaks complex behaviour into their smallest component parts.

Question 32

What are the three types of reductionism?

Answer 32

1) biological reductionism (most extreme) 2) machine reductionism (mid level) 3) environmental reductionism (less extreme)

Question 33

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 33

1) reduces human behaviour to the activity of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genes. 2) example: schizophrenia has been linked to excess dopamine activity, as drugs that block dopamine receptors have been shown to reduce symptoms. 3) the biological approach relies on biological reductionism.

Question 34

What is machine reductionism?

Answer 34

1) treats organisms, including humans as machine-like systems where behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into distinct cognitive processes. 2) example: the cognitive approach often uses machine reductionism by comparing human thinking to computer processing.

Question 35

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 35

1) reduces behaviour to a stimulus-response relationship, ignoring internal processes. 2) example: attachment is explained as a learning association, the mother provides food, which is reinforcing, leading the infant to view her as a “loved one”. 3) the behaviourist approach follows environmental reductionism.

Question 36

What is holism?

Answer 36

Holism is the highest level of explanation of behaviour, taking account of all aspects of a person’s behaviour/experience, it is the opposite of reductionism. The humanistic approach believes that the individual reacts as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response links. What matters is a person’s sense of a unified identity and thus a lack of identity or sense of “wholeness” leads to a mental disorder.

Question 37

Strengths of reductionism?

Answer 37

1) both biological reductionism and environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific. Breaking complex behaviours into small constituent parts means that they can be scientifically tested and over time explanations of behaviour based on scientific evidence will emerge. 2) biological reductionism has led to the development of biological therapies such as drugs. For example, SSRIs are more effective than placebos at treating the symptoms of OCD and reduce the symptoms for up to three months after the treatment. The use of SSRIs in patients with OCD has helped to reduce the anxiety associated with OCR thus providing relief for some patients.

Question 38

Weaknesses of reductionism?

Answer 38

1) some psychologists argue that biological reductionism can lead to errors of understanding because it is simplistic and ignores the complex interaction of many factors in determining behaviour. For example to treat conditions like ADHD with drugs may reduce symptoms, however doesn’t tackle the root cause of ADHD. 2) much of the research which supports environmental reductionism used animals eg Pavlov. However, it is difficult to generalise findings from animals to humans. Critics of reductionism show how it is hard to measure factors like cognition, emotion and intentionality for animals and humans.

Question 39

What is the idiographic approach?

Answer 39

The idiographic approach studies individuals in depth, focusing on unique insights rather than generalising across apopulations.

Question 40

What data is collected for idiographic approach?

Answer 40

It is qualitative, prioritising rich, detailed data over numerical analysis, using methods like case studies and unstructured interviews.

Question 41

What approaches are idiographic?

Answer 41

1) the psychodynamic approach is idiographic, as seeen in freud’s case studies, such as little hans, where detailed personal accounts were analysed to understand behaviour 2) The humanistic approach also follows the idiographic perspective, emphasising personal experience and viewing individuals holistically, rather than reducing them to observable traits.

Question 42

What is the nomothetic approach?

Answer 42

The nomothetic approach involves the study of a large representative sample, ideally selected using random sampling , in order to collect a large amount of data to support a testable hypothesis The approach seeks to formulate general law of behaviour that apply to everyone, this is also the goal of the scientific approach in psychology.

Question 43

What type of research methods does nomothetic approach use?

Answer 43

The nomothetic approach favours quantitative research methods that are based on numbers (measures of dispersion, central tendency, graphs and statistical analysis ). Such calculations require data from a large group of people rather than individuals.

Question 44

What approaches use the nomothetic approach?

Answer 44

1) the biological approach seeks to portray basic principles of how the body and brain work. They have made mistakes where the assumed could be applied to females when only studying men, eg fight or flight approach. 2) the behaviourist approach produces general laws of human behaviour. Behaviourist research were seeking one set of rules for all human and non-human animals. 3) the cognitive approach is also nomothetic , as it aims to develop general laws of behaviour which apply to all people such as understanding memory processes.

Question 45

Strengths of idiographic approach?

Answer 45

1) the idiographic approach provides rich, in depth insights into individual cases, which the nomothetic approach cannot. All port argued that understanding a person as an individual is key to predicting their behaviour in specific situations. 2) some idiographic methods, such as case studies and themati analysis can be scientific and objective. Qualitative research uses reflexivity, a process where researchers critically reflect on biases affecting both participants and themselves, to enhance validity.

Question 46

Weaknesses of the idiographic approach?

Answer 46

1) the idiographic approach has limited generalisability. While it provides deep insights, the idiographic approach struggles to make broad behavioural predictions, which are often necessary. For example developing personalised therapy for every individual with a mental illness would be impractical. 2) the idiographic approach is time consuming and costly. Idiographic research focuses on one individual, making it slower and more expensive. In contract, nomothetic research gathers smaller datasets from larger groups, allowing for quicker more efficient analysis through questionares and statistical tests.

Question 47

What does socially sensitive research mean?

Answer 47

Sieber and Stanley used the term socially sensitive to describe research where the topic area/group being studied can have implications for society or certain groups within society. Potentially this researchcould lead to a change in the way these groups are treated or perceived. Sieber and Stanley atgue that scientists have a responsibility for the way in which their research will be used in the future.

Question 48

What 4 aspects did sieber and Stanley identify that raise ethical implications?

Answer 48

1) the research question- the researcher must consider the research question carefully, asking questions such as “are their racial differences in intelligence” may be damaging to members of a particular group. 2) the methodology used- the researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participants and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. 3) the institutional context - the researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and who is funding the research. 4) interpretation and application of findings- the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted we and applied to the real world. Could their results be used to inform government policy?

Question 49

Strengths of socially sensitive research?

Answer 49

1) psychologists should conduct socially sensitive research because many groups in society have suffered the consequences of being excluded from research, or being misrepresented when they have been included. A lack of representation has ethical implications because people miss out on the benefits of psychological research. 2) in order to reduce the likelihood that data is mishandled, psychologists should be energetic in taking responsibility for what happens to their findings. They should be aware that the results of their research may lead to abuse or discrimination. 3 psychologists deal with ethical issues in socially sensitive research by developing ethical guidelines. However, ethical guidelines protect the immediate needs of participants but do not deal with all of the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society. For example, ethical guidelines do not ask the researcher how their research will be used.

Question 50

Weakness of socially sensitive research?

Answer 50

1) there are always some social consequences from psychological research but with socially sensitive research, there is always the increased potential for a more indirect impact on the group that the participant represents eg addicts. It is not sufficient to simply safeguard the interests of individuals participants.