Attachment Flashcards
Two main types of care-giver infant interactions
1) reciprocity
2) interactional synchrony
What is an attachment
a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary care giver.
What is reciprocity (AO1)
It is a two way, mutual process where each party responds to the other’s signals to sustain interaction.
The regularity of an infant’s signals allows a caregiver to anticipate the infant’s behaviour and respond appropriately.
This sensitivity to infant behaviour lays the foundation for later attachment between the caregiver and the infant.
What is interactional synchrony (AO1)
This is when adults and babies respond in time to sustain communication. Their actions and emotions mirror each other.
Research has found that infants as young as two or three weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures that they saw adults do.
Research to support interactional synchrony
Meltzoff and Moore conducted a study to test IS. An adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or hand movements.
A dummy was placed in the baby’s mouth during the display to prevent any response. Following the display, the dummy was removed and the infant’s response was filmed.
They found there was an association between the infant’s behaviour and the adult model.
Strength of caregiver and infant interactions
Murray and Trevarthen (1985) got mothers to interact with their babies over a video monitor. In the next part of the study, the babies were played a tape of their mother so she was not responding to them. The babies tried to attract the mother’s attention but when this failed, they gave up responding. This shows they wanted the mothers to reciprocate.
Abravanal and Deyong (1991) observed infant behaviour when interacting with a puppet that looked like a human mouth opening and closing. Infants had little response to this and did not imitate showing interactional synchrony is a specific social response.
Weaknesses of caregiver and infant interactions
Babies cannot use language to communicate so psychologists are relying on their inferences. They cannot be sure that infants are actually trying to communicate with their caregiver.
The expressions tested (yawning, smiling, tongue sticking out) are ones that infants frequently make so they may not have been deliberately imitating what they saw
What are some difficulties investigating caregiver-infant interactions
1) studies have found babies’ attachment behaviours are stronger in lab settings than in a home environment therefore studies should take place in a natural setting to increase validity.
2) most studies are observational so may be bias in the observer’s interpretation of what they see (observer bias). This can be countered by having multiple observers.
Who developed the theory of stages of attachment
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Schaffer and Emerson’s study into attachment
Their study involved 60 babies from Glasgow and the majority of them were born into skilled working class families. The infants ranged from 5-23 weeks of age.
All the babies were visited in their homes every 4 weeks for the first year and then again at 18 months.
A mixture of observations and interviews were conducted to collect data. Mother was asked to keep a diary to record the child’s behaviour to the following scenarios :
Separation Anxiety - signs of distress when the carer leaving, and how much the infant needs to be comforted when the carer returns.
Stranger Anxiety - signs of distress as a response to a stranger arriving.
Findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s study
1) 65% of the babies’ primary attachment figure was the mother
2) 30% were jointly attached to the mother and one other figure.
3) 3% were attached to the father
4) 27% were attached to the father and mother.
First stage of attachment
1) It is the pre-attachment phase (Birth-3 months).
2) the baby behaves similarly to both human and inanimate objects. However after 6 weeks, may begin to prefer humans.
3) also known as Asocial stage
Second stage of attachment
1) this is called indiscriminate attachments (3-6/7 months).
2) Babies at this stage become much more social and begin to recognise and prefer familiar adults.
3) they do not show separation protest or stranger anxiety and do not show preference towards one adult.
Third stage of attachment
1) this is called specific attachments. (7/8 months).
2) at this stage, the infant shows separation anxiety when a particular person puts them down and are comforted most by this person (their primary attachment figure)
3) babies also show “stranger anxiety”.
Fourth stage of attachment
1) this is called multiple attachments (9 months onwards)
2) the infant forms multiple attachments and seeks security, comfort and protection in multiple people. They may also show separation anxiety for multiple people.
Strengths of stages of attachments
1) it has good external validity at Schaffer and Emerson’s study was carried out in the families’ own homes and most observation was done by the parents. Thus the participants would have behaved naturally and not shown demand characteristics, so findings can be applied to real life.
2) no ethical issues as consent was obtained from the parents . Confidentiality was maintained. Observations and self report techniques were used so no deception was involved.
Weaknesses of stages of attachments
1) The study does not have temporal validity, it was conducted in the 1960s and
parental care of children has changed considerably since then. More women go
out to work and more men stay at home.
2) as observations and self report techniques were used, both would be prone to bias. Mothers could’ve answered interview questions in a way to make it seem that their relationship with their infants was better than it actually was (social desirability bias).
Do babies attach to their fathers
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that for the majority of babies their mother is their primary attachment figure. At around 7 months of age babies form secondary attachments to other family members, including their father.
75% of infants studied had formed an attachment with their father by the age of 18 months.
Research into the role of the father
Grossman et al (2002) carried out a longitudinal study where babies’ attachments were studied until they were teens.
The researchers looked at both parents’ behaviour and the quality of their relationship with their children.
It was found that the quality of a baby’s attachment to mothers but not fathers was related to attachments in adolescence suggesting that the father is less important than attachment to mothers.
However the quality of fathers’ play with babies was related to the quality of adolescent attachments suggesting father’s have a different role to mothers.
Why are fathers less likely to be the primary attachment figure?
1) This might be because they spend less time with their infants.
2) It is also possible that most men are not as psychologically equipped to form an intense attachment because they lack the emotional sensitivity that women have.
3) This could be due to biological factors. The female hormone oxytocin underlies caring behaviour so women are more orientated to interpersonal goals than men.
4) In some cultures there is also the stereotype that it is feminine to be sensitive to the needs of others.
Strength of the role of the father
1) there is real world application. It can be used to offer advice to parents. For example mothers may feel pressured to stay at home and fathers may feel pressured to work. Thus research into the role of the father can offer reassurance that fathers can be as equally competent as mothers in fulfilling the role of the primary attachment figure.
Weakness of the role of the father
1) There is inconsistency in the research as to the importance of the role of the father. Research investigating the effects of growing up in a single female or same-sex parent family show there is no effect on development, and therefore suggests the role of the father is not important.
2) research into the role of fathers is confusing because different researchers are interested in different questions. Some research into secondary attachment and some into primary attachment which makes it difficult to conclude the true role of the father.
3) Research also questions whether the father plays a distinct role. Studies show that the father in a single parent family is more likely to adopt the traditional maternal role and can be their child’s primary attachment figure.
What is imprinting
This is when a new born baby attaches to the first living thing they see at birth and in a specific time frame (critical period).
How did a study on imprinting
Lorenz
Imprinting research
Lorenz Split a large clutch of goose eggs into 2, on e hatched naturally by the mother and the other hatched in an incubator.
Lorenz marked all the goslings to determine which hatched from which condition.
He placed them in an upturned box and the removed the box and monitored the behaviour.
Finding of lorenz’s study
The naturally hatched baby goslings followed their mother and the incubator hatched goslings followed Lorenz around.
These bonds were irreversible.
He also noticed that imprinting would only occur within 4-25 hours after hatching, otherwise it would not occur at all
What is sexual imprinting
Lorenz observed that birds that imprinted on a human would often later display courtship behaviour. He noticed that the process is irreversible and long lasting.
Strengths of lorenz’s research
1) there are a number of other studies that have demonstrated imprinting. For example, Guiton (1966) demonstrated that leghorn chicks , exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding them during their first few weeks, became imprinted on the gloves. Guiton also found that the male chickens later tried to mate with the gloves.
2) Lorenz had observed a peacock who had hatched and the first moving objects the peacocks saw were giant tortoises. As an adult, the peacocks would only direct courtship behaviour with giant tortoises, showing they had undergone sexual imprinting.
Weaknesses of Lorenz’s research
1) the original concept was that imprinting was an irreversible concept however now it is understood that it is more of a “plastic and forgiving mechanism” (Hoffman 1996). Guiton found that the chicken)s behaviour towards mating with the yellow gloves could be reversed after spending time with their own species.
2) Lorenz was interested in imprinting in birds so there is a problem generalising from birds to humans as it seems that mammalian attachment system is different to birds. For example mammals are able to form attachments at any time rather than a specific critical period.
Harlow’s research procedure
1) new born monkeys were speared from their mothers and raised in cages. Two types of surrogate were constructed, a wire mother and a towelling mother. Babies was in one of four conditions:
- cage containing a wire mother producing milk and a towelling mother producing no milk
- a cage containing a wire mother producing no Milk and the towelling mother producing milk.
- cage containing a wire mother producing milk
- a cage containing a towelling mother producing milk.
The monkeys were frightened with a loud noise to test for mother preference during stress.
Findings of Harlow’s study
- Monkeys preferred contact with the towelling mother when given a choice of surrgiage mothers despite whether it produced milk or not.
- Monkeys with only a wire mothe has diarrhoea, a sign of distress.
- in the larger cage conditions, monkeys with the towelling mothers explored more.
Strengths of Harlow’s research
1) Harlow’s research has had a profound effect on the understanding on human-infant interaction. He has showed that attachment does not come from being fed but from contact comfort. He also showed the importance of the quality of early attachment for later social development.
2) Harlow’s research has had important practical applications. For example it has helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse and so intervene to prevent it.
Weaknesses of Harlow’s research
1) Harlow’s study cannot be conducted on humans, however it is clear to see the ethical issues on how the monkeys were treated. It created lasting emotional harm as the monkey’s later found it difficult to form relationships with their peers.
2) animal studies have issues to generalisation to human behaviour mainly because humans behaviour is governed by conscious decisions and we are not able to attain how animals make their decisions.
What is learning theory
Learning theory proposes that all behaviour is learned rather than inborn.
