Psychopathology Flashcards
What are the four definitions of abnormality?
-deviation from social norms
-Failure to function adequately
-Statistical infrequency
-Deviation from ideal mental health
What is deviation from social norms?
-it is any behaviour that does not follow accepted social patterns or social rules. Such violation of these patterns or rules can be regarded as abnormal behaviour and therefore be unacceptable.
-an example would be wearing no clothes in public.
-deviation from social norms looks at the impact of an individual’s behaviour upon other people .
-deviation from social norms can be used to identify someone suffering from a mental disorder as when someone is behaving in a way that is not expected of them, we become concerned enough to think that the person is suffering.
Strengths of deviation from social norms
1) it distinguishes between desirable and non desirable behaviour. This model aims to protect members of the public from the effects of abnormal behaviour and the damaging consequences it may have. For example, someone wearing no clothes in public would be damaging and disturbing to members of the public. Therefore, to highlight this behaviour as abnormal, we can aim to minimise this behaviour in order to protect people from its affects.
2) it is easy to identify someone when they do something that is not expected of them. For example (eg queue jumping or causing a scene in public). Therefore, people can quickly identify if someone is being abnormal and get them the help they need if they are suffering from a mental disorder.
Weaknesses of deviation from social norms
1) one disadvantage of using devaition from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that the definition does not always clearly indicate that a person has a psychological abnormality. Therefore psychologists must be careful when using this definition to decide whether someone is abnormal or just odd. For example, people who streak might be quite odd however it does not mean they are mentally disturbed.
2) another disadvantage of this definition is that context must be taken into account. An example could be that wearing no clothes in the high street would be viewed as odd and deviating of social norms. However, wearing no clothes would be acceptable on a nudist beach. Therefore context must be considered when judinging whether a behaviour is deviant or not.
What is failure to function adequately?
-this model of abnormality is based on the fact that the person is unable to cope with day to day life such as having a job because they are experiencing psychological distress and discomfort. This impacts their social, personal and occupational life.
-psychologists use the global assessment of functioning scale (GAF) to asses rates of social, occupational and psychological functioning.
-Rosenhan and Seligman created a model with 7 criteria that help define abnormality
-the higher the number of criteria someone has, the more abnormal they are.
What are the 7 criteria by Rosenhan and Seligman ?
1) suffering
2) unpredictability and loss of control
3)maladaptiveness - means behaviour that prevents an individual from achieving their goals
4) observer discomfort
5) unconventionality- the way they behave is different to how others behave
6) irrationality - irrational behaviour
7) violation of moral and ideal standards -behaviour that violates social norms
Strengths of failure to function adequately
1) an advantage of this model is that using the GAF scale means that psychologists can accurately assess the degree of abnormality and how well the patient is / is not coping with their daily life. If a patient appears to not be coping very well in their social / occupational life, then it could be concluded that they are not functioning adequately and are therefore abnormal.
2) This definition focuses on behaviours which can be observed in the individual for example not getting out of bed in the morning to go to work, allowing others to judge if the individual appears to have abnormal behaviours. Therefore, people can intervene and help the individual.
Weaknesses of failure to function adequately
1) a disadvantage of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that abnormality is not always accompanied by dysfunction. Some people are abnormal yet appear to live a normal life and do not possess the 7 criteria by Rosenhan and Seligman. For example, Harold Shipman was a murderer yet appeared to function completely fine. On the other hand, someone may appear to not be functioning adequately, however they may just be having a bad day.
2) another disadvantage is that the 7 criteria used can be very difficult to measure and analyse. For instance how can we judge if somone is truly suffering or not. The model is very subjective and lacks being scientific and objective meaning psychologists need to be cautious when using this model. Also, some criteria may be appropriate in certain situations. For example, if a close relative passes away, it is totally normal to show signs of suffering.
What is statistical infrequency?
- statistical infrequency occurs when an individual possesses a less common characteristic than most of the population. The behaviours displayed are statistically rare, for example being extremely intelligent with an iq score over 130.
-the average IQ score is 100. Any scores significantly higher (130) or significantly lower (70) would be classed as statistically infrequent and therefore abnormal.
-we can display the data gained from IQ scores in a normal distribution curve.
-sometimes the distribution curves can be left -skewed (negative Skewness) so the tail of distribution is to the left.
-sometimes the distribution curves can be right skewed (positive skewness) so the tail of distribution is to the right.
Strengths of statistical infrequency
1) an advantage of statistical infrequency is that to have an IQ score over 130 is just as unusual or statistically infrequent as having an in score below 70. However, being very intelligent with an IQ score over 130 is not a negative bahviour but is actually quite positive and desirable . Just because something is infrequent does not mean someone is abnormal so statistical infrequency can be a good thing.
2) an advantage of statistical infrequency is that judgements are based on objective, scientific and unbiased data that can help indicate abnormailty and normality, for example the IQ scores. The requests can help identify whether someone needs psychological help and assistance eg an IQ score below 70 could indicate mental disability.
Weaknesses of statistical infrequency
1) a disadvantage of statistical infrequency is that it involves labelling some people as abnormal and this is not beneficial. A person with a low iq of 70 might be labelled in a bad manner by other members of society , and this could lead to a negative view of themselves. It could affect self confidence and self esteem and lead to further problems.
2) statistical infrequency can be criticised because there seems to be a subjective cut off point between statistical infrequency and normality. We need to decide the dividing line between where normality ends and abnormailty starts and this is very subjective as someone with an iq score of 70 is classed as normal but someone with an iq score of 69 is abnormal.
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
-This definition assesses mental health in the same way physical health is assessed
-Once it is established how individuals should look when they are psychologically healthy (ideal mental health), then those who deviate from this can be identified
-self actualisation means that humans should strive to reach their full potential. Normal people should strive to achieve their goals. Abnormal people fail to achieve their goals.
-Marie Jahoda (1958) suggested there are 6 characteristics an individual should display if they have an idea of mental health
What are Marie Jahoda’s 6 criteria (APPIES)
1) autonomy -the degree to which can individual is independant of social influence
2) perception of reality- having a real view of the world that is not distorted
3) personal growth - development and growth of an individual
4) integration -Resisting stress and being able to cope in stressful situations.
5) environmental mastery - Meeting the demands of the environment and situation you are in, and adapting to this.
6) self attitudes - high self esteem and a strong sense of identity.
Strengths of deviation from ideal mental health
1) a strength of Marie jahodas model is that it can be viewed as being positive and productive. It focuses on criteria that we should all aim and strive for in order to be psychologically healthy. For example, self actualisation is a positive trait that every human should try to accomplish if possible.
2)another advantage is that it can highlight and target areas of dysfunction that the patient can work on and improve in their life. This can be very important when treating different types of disorders , for instance people who do not possess the criteria of “self attitudes” might be showing signs of depression. This can therefore highlight the area of dysfunction to both the patient and psychologist.
Weaknesses of devaition from ideal mental health
1) deviation from ideal mental health can be viewed as problematic. The six criteria are based on abstract concepts and ideals and are difficult to define and measure. For instance, how much “environmental mastery” or “self attitudes” do we need to by judged as psychologically healthy. The model is not very objective or scientific.
2) another disadvantage of the model is that very few people can achieve all 6 criteria at any one time. Therefore many of us would be classed as abnormal; and we could argue that it would be “normal” to be abnormal. To sustain and meet all 6 criteria is deemed to be very difficult and an ideal that is very hard to meet.
What are the Behavioural characteristics of phobias?
1) avoidance - when faced with the phobic object, the response is to avoid the object or situation. This can interfere with a person’s social and occupational life and cause distress.
2) endurance (freeze/faint) - when a person is stressed their bodily response is usually fight/flight. However when faced with the object, a person may freeze or faint instead.
3) disruption of functioning- anxiety and avoidance created by the phobia may be so extreme that it could interfere with a person’s ability to function socially or at work.
4) panic - the person may panic when in presence of the stimulus. They may show behavioural characteristics such as crying, screaming, vomiting, running away or freezing.
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
1) fear- persistent and excessive fear might be felt in the presence of the stimulus. They might have feelings of terror and worry about death if they come into contact with their phobic object.
2) panic and anxiety - the person may be highly anxious and experience unpleasant negative feelings when faced with the phobic situation.
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
1) irrational- the person will think irrationally around the phobic object and will resist rational arguments to counter it. For example someone who is flying will not listen to the fact “flying is the safest form of transport”
2) insight - the person will know their fear is excessive and unreasonable but still find it difficult to not fear the object.
3) cognitive distortions - the person has a distorted perception of the stimulus for instance they may view snakes as alien and aggressive
4) selective attention- when a person encounters their phobic object, they place all their focus on it and ignore everything else around them.
What is the two process model?
A) the phobia is learnt via classical conditioning or social learning
B) the phobia is maintained by operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning + study?
1) this method of learning involves building up an association between two different stimuli so that learning takes place,
2) this was carried out by Watson and Rayner on 11 month old little Albert (1920).
3) little Albert was presented with animals such as white rats and rabbits.
4) he showed no fear and often touched them
5) however, whenever he reached for the white rat, a loud banging noise (unconditioned stimulus) was struck with a steel bar and hammer which made him cry.
6) they repeatedly did this whenever Albert reached for the white rat until classical conditioning and learning take place.
7) then we could see that when the white rat was presented again to Albert, he now had an emotional response. Therefore learning has taken place via classical conditioning and an association has been established.
Strengths of classical conditioning
1) king (1998) supports the ideas proposed by classical conditioning. From reviewing the case studies, he has found that children acquire phobias by encountering traumatic experiences with the phobic object eg people who have been bitten by dogs, end up developing a phobia of dogs.
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
1) the study on little Albert can be criticised because it was only conducted once and the findings have not been repeated (not very reliable). Therefore, it could be questioned whether the same results would be gained if this study was to be repeated when investigating whether phobias can be learnt via classical conditioning. This study cannot be repeated now due to ethical issues.
2) a disadvantage of classical conditioning is that some people do have traumatic experiences (eg being in a car crash) but do not develop a phobia (eg fear of driving) so classical conditioning does not always explain how phobias develop. The opposite is also true as some people have not had traumatic experiences with the phobic object eg snakes yet are still scared.
3) the psychologist Menzies criticises the behavioural model, especially the idea of classical conditioning. He studied people that had a phobia of water (hydrophobia) and he found that 2% of his sample had encountered a negative experience with water (due to classical conditioning). Therefore 98% of his sample had never had a negative experience with water, meaning they did not learn the phobia based on classical conditioning.
What is the social learning theory/modelling
-this is based on observational learning whereby young children might observe a reaction that their parents or family have to a particular situation and the child will copy this behaviour . For instance is we watch someone get bitten by a dog and start screaming, then we might imitate this behaviour and become scared of dogs meaning we learnt a phobia via observational learning.
- the psychologist Minneka found that when one monkey in a cage showed a fear response to snakes, the other monkeys in the cage copied this behaviour and also showed a fear response. This example can be applied to humans.
What is operant conditioning ?
Operant conditioning helps to explain how phobias are maintained.
-negative reinforcement - for instance is someone is scared of snakes , they will try to avoid snakes in order to reduce the risk that they will feel fear
-positive reinforcement - by avoiding snakes and not feeling fear, this is rewarding. Therefore the avoidance of snakes continue.
Strengths of the two process model
1) Bandura supports the idea of social learning theory. A piece of research was conducted whereby a person acted as if they were in pain when a buzzer sounded and participants had to watch this reaction. The participants were then given the chance to hear the sound of the buzzer and then showed the same response (acted as if they were in pain) . Therefore social learning theory does seem to be an effective method when learning to be fearful of an object.
2)the two step process has received praise because it involves two clear steps that highlight how phobias are learned and how they are maintained. They are learnt by powerful classical conditioning or social learning and then maintained by operant conditioning . The process seems an accurate way in explaining how phobias can be learnt overall.
Weaknesses of the two process model
1) the behavioural model/two process model is limited as it ignores other factors that could chase phobias. The model focuses on learning and the environment but would not take into account biological or evolutionary factors that could cause phobias. Some people may be more genetically vulnerable to develop phobias and the model ignores that.
2) social learning theory can be successful in explaining how learning a phobia can occur in animals and young children . However social learning theory is not very strong in explaining how adults can learn to have phobias. Therefore, the social learning theory is limited to young children and animals.
What is systematic desensitisation?
SD is a behavioural therapy developed by wolpe (1958) to reduce phobias by using classical conditioning. Using classical conditioning, they replace the irrational fears and anxieties associated with phobic objects with calm relaxed responses instead. The central idea of SD is that it is impossible to experience two opposite emotions at the same time eg fear and relaxation; this is called reciprocal inhibition. Therefore if a patient can learn to remain relaxed around the phobic object, they can be cured. This is called counter conditioning .
Process involved in systematic desensitisation
1) a hierarchy of fear is constructed by the therapist and patient. Situations involving the phobic object are ranked from least to most fearful. If a person has a fear of snakes, the therapists mights start by showing them a picture of a snake, then looking at a snake in a cage then eventually holding a snake.
2) patients are taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and progressive muscular relaxation. PMR is when the patient tenses a group of muscles, hold them in a state of extreme tension and then relaxes them. When doing the relaxation response, patients are asked to sit quietly and comfortably and close their eyes. While doing thus they are asked to close their eyes and sit. They then start by relaxing the muscles in their feet and work their way up. While doing this they are asked to breathe deeply and think of peaceful scenarios.
3) gradual exposure- the phobic object is introduced gradually and they work their way up the fear hierarchy starting with the least frightening stage. When they feel comfortable with the stage, they move onto the next. Patients are instructed to use relaxation techniques and eventually through repeated exposure, the phobia is eliminated. This process will take many therapy sessions.
Strengths of Systematic desensitisation
1) Jones (1924) Support the use of SD to eradicate little Peter’s phobia. A white rabbit was presented to Peter at gradually closer distances and each time his anxiety levels lessened . Eventually he developed affection for the white rabbit which extended to all fluffy objects.
2) klosko et al (1990) supports the use of SD. He assessed various therapies for the treatment of panic disorders and found that 87% of patients were panic free after SD compared to 50% on medication and 36% receiving a placebo and 33% using nothing at all. Therefore SD is effective compared to other methods.
3) SD has the advantage of being less traumatic than other behavioural therapies such as flooding, where the patient is confronted with the phobic object directly. Therefore, SD has less ethical implications than other therapies and is less upsetting for the patient to endure.
Weaknesses of systematic desensitisation
1) one disadvantage is that it is not always practical for individuals to be desensitised by confronting real life phobic situations eg for someone who is afraid of sharks, a fear hierarchy is difficult to construct. Therefore, SD might be very difficult to apply to real life situations and can question the effectiveness of the therapy.
2) some critics believe that symptoms are merely the tip of the iceberg and claim that underlying causes of the phobia will remain, and in the future the symptoms will return or symptom substitution will take place, when other abnormal behaviours replaced the ones that have been removed.
