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A LEVEL PSYCH > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 4 types of experiments

A
  • lab
  • field
  • natural
  • quasi
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2
Q

description of lab experiments

A
  • a research method where the experiment manipulates one or more IV
  • measures the effects on the dependent variable, under controlled condition
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3
Q

strengths of lab experiments

A
  • tighter control of variables
  • easy to comment on cause and effect
  • easy to replicate as highly controlled
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4
Q

limitations of lab experiments

A
  • lacks ecological validity
  • demand characteristics might also become a problem
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5
Q

description of field experiment

A
  • a natural setting away from a lab
  • researcher has less control and can only control the environment to some extent
  • collects quantitative data
  • extraneous variables are included in the experiment
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6
Q

strengths of field experiments

A
  • higher ecological validity
  • participants less likely to show demand characteristics
  • high levels of mundane realism
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7
Q

limitations of field experiments

A
  • harder to randomly assign p’s so more likely to be a change
  • hard to control extraneous variables
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8
Q

description of natural experiments

A

the study of a naturally occurring situation as it unfolds in the real world so the researcher does not exert any influence

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9
Q

strengths of a natural experiment

A
  • high ecological validity
  • the IV cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons
  • little bias from sampling or demand characteristics
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10
Q

limitations of natural experiments

A
  • difficult to create cause and effect relationship due to lack of control
  • difficult to replicate
  • many extraneous variables
  • p’s could become aware of the study causing demand characteristics
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11
Q

description of quasi experiment

A
  • have an IV based on an existing difference between people and no one has manipulated this variable
  • the variables just simplely ‘exist’ e.g. being olf or young
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12
Q

strengths of quasi experiemnts

A
  • carried out under a controlled condition
  • can be replicated
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13
Q

limitations of quasi experiments

A
  • cannot randomly allocate ps so often are confounding variables
  • cannot create a cause and effect relationship as it IV has not been deliberately changed
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14
Q

key point of lab experiments

A

highly controlled conditions

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15
Q

key point of field experiments

A
  • it takes in a real-world setting
  • the experimenter manipulates one or more IV to get a change in DV
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16
Q

key point of natural experiments

A
  • happens without the effect of a researcher
  • ecologically valid
  • many extraneous variables that cannot be controlled
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17
Q

key point of quasi experiments

A

variables just simply exist, IV based on an existing difference between people

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18
Q

what is a research aim

A

the stated intention of what questions are planned to be answered

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19
Q

what is an operational definition

A

a description of a variable given in terms of how it is actually measured

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20
Q

what is an experimental hypothesis

A

a statement which makes certain predictions about what results will be during the investigation

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21
Q

what is a null hypothesis

A

a prediction that nothing will happen

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22
Q

what is a one tailed/directional hypothesis

A

when a hypothesis predicts the direction of the results

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23
Q

what is a two-tailed or non-directional hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that does not state a direction but states that there will be a difference between 2 sets of scores

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24
Q

what are extraneous variables

A

any variables, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it not controlled

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25
Q

what an confounding variables

A

if extraneous variables are failed to be controlled and they have impacted the results

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26
Q

what is experimental design

A

how participants are allocated to different conditions in an experiment

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27
Q

what is the most common way to design an experiment

A

experimental group and a control group

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28
Q

what are the three types of experimental design

A
  • independent groups
  • repeated measures
  • matched pairs
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29
Q

what are independent groups

A

different people in each condition

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30
Q

+ves and -ves of independent groups

A

+ demand characteristics of less of a problem
+ order effects are less of a problem
- participant variables

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31
Q

what are repeated measures

A

the same people in both conditions

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32
Q

+ves and -ves of repeated measures

A

+ participant variables are controlled
- demand characteristics
- order effects (can be controlled by counterbalancing)

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33
Q

what are matched pairs

A

different but similar participants in each condition

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34
Q

+ves and -ves of matched pairs

A

+ demand characteristics not a problem
+ order effects are not a problem
+ participant variables can be controlled better
- no two participants are exactly the same so always going to be some participant variables

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35
Q

what are demand characteristics

A

people change their opinions on what they think people want rather than what they actually think

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36
Q

what are order effects

A

occurs when participants’ responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed

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37
Q

what is counterbalancing

A

changing the order of the groups to reduce order effects

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38
Q

what is the target population

A

a subgroup of the general population

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38
Q

what is the population

A

the large group of individuals who the researcher may be studying

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39
Q

what is the sample

A

the group of people who take part in the research drawn from the target population and presumed to be representative of the population

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40
Q

what happens if the sample is not representative of the population

A

the data is not generalisable

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41
Q

why is representation difficult to achieve

A

due to the diverse nature of individuals in a sample so is likely some bias

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42
Q

what is a random sample

A

all participants have an equal chance of being selected

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43
Q

+s and -s of random sampling

A

+ is free from research bias
- time consuming
- difficult to conduct
- no guarantee it is representative

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44
Q

what is systematic sampling

A

every nth member of the target population is selected and a sampling frame is produced

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45
Q

+s and -s of systematic sampling

A

+ avoids researcher bias, as once the system has been established the research has no influence
- difficult to achieve
- time consuming
- no guarantee it will representative

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46
Q

what is a stratified sample

A

the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and workout the proportion needed for the sample to be representative

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47
Q

+s and -s of a stratified sample

A

+ avoids researcher bias
+ designed to be representative of the population
- stratification is not perfect

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48
Q

what is volunteer sampling

A

ps put themselves forward to be part of a sample

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49
Q

+s and -s of volunteer sampling

A

+ it is easy and requires minimal input, so is less time-consuming
- volunteer bias

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50
Q

what is opportunity sampling

A

people who are available and willing to take part

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50
Q

+s and -s of opportunity sampling

A

+ it is quick and easy way of choosing ps
- research bias
- unrepresentative of the target population

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51
Q

most to least representative sampling type

A
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52
Q

most to least time consuming sampling type

A
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52
Q

most to least biased sampling type

A
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53
Q

what are the types of observations

A
  • lab
  • natural
  • overt
  • covert
  • participant
  • non-participant
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54
Q

what is a lab observation

A

observation carried out in an artificial setting

55
Q

+s and -s of lab observation

A

+ can be replicated as researcher control variables
- low ecological validity
- potential outside influence from researcher
- possibility of demand characteristics

56
Q

what is a natural observation

A

observation carried out in the ps own environment (can be covert or overt)

57
Q

+s and -s of natural observation

A

+ high ecological validity
+ no outside inference
- hard to replicate situation so cannot check reliability

58
Q

what are covert and overt observation

A

overt - ps know they are being watched
covert - ps do not know they are being watched

59
Q

+s and -s of overt observations

A

+ it is possible to inform ps in advance and obtain informed consent
- demand characteristics

60
Q

+s and -s of covert observation

A

+ no problems of demand characteristics
- less ethical as participants cannot give fully informed consent

61
Q

what is participant observation

A

where the researcher becomes involved in the group they are observing

62
Q

+s and -s of participant observation

A

+ researcher can obtain in depth data as they are in close proximity
- the researcher presence might influence the ps behaviour

63
Q

what is non-participant observation

A

where there is no direct contact between the observer and those being observed

64
Q

+s and -s of non-participant observations

A

+ demand characteristics are less likely to occur
- researcher might overlook behaviour due to lack of proximity

65
Q

what are questionnaires

A

a set of written questions designed to collect information

66
Q

characteristics of questionnaires

A
  • can discover what people think or feel
  • always pre-determined (structured)
  • can provide qualitative or quantitative data from open or closed questions
67
Q

what is involved in a good question

A
  • clarity (no double negatives or double barrelled questions)
  • bias
  • easy to analyse
68
Q

what is involved in a good questionnaire

A
  • filler questions
  • sequence of questions
  • sampling techniques
  • pilot study
69
Q

what are filler questions

A

irrelevant questions to distract to respondent from the main purpose of the questionnaire

70
Q

what is a pilot study

A

test the questions on a small group of people

71
Q

strengths of a questionnaire

A
  • can be done by lots of people quickly
  • open questions allow for elaboration leading to more research
  • reduces experimenter bias
  • no special training needed to hand them out
72
Q

weaknesses of questionnaires

A
  • sample could be biased as to who is filling it out
  • closed questions limit response (easier to summarise)
  • can be time-consuming to design
  • can only be filled out by those who can read and write
72
Q

what is a structured interview

A

has predetermined questions that do not change between each interviewee

73
Q

what is an unstructured interview

A

interviewer starts with general aims but subsequent questions are based on the bias of the answers they are given

74
Q

what is a semi-structured interview

A

combines a predetermined set of open questions with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further.

75
Q

strengths of a structured interview

A
  • easily repeated because questions are standardised
  • easy to compare answers as they are standardised
  • different people can be compared
76
Q

weaknesses of structured interviews

A
  • interviewer bias
  • comparability is difficult if the interviewer behaves differently or different interviewer
77
Q

strengths of an unstructured interview

A
  • more detailed information obtained
78
Q

weaknesses of an unstructured interview

A
  • requires interviewer with more skill
  • questions lack objectivity
  • more expensive as need an experienced interviewer
  • interviewer bias
79
Q

what is the effect of an interviewer

A

the presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondents answers may increase the amount of information provided

80
Q

how do listening skills improve an interview

A

do not interrupt too much and when they do speak use encouraging comments to provide more detail

81
Q

what are the questioning skills in an unstructured interview

A
  • avoid repeating questions
  • avoid probing too much
  • ask focused questions
82
Q

what is the purpose of a case study

A

to provide detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real-life event

83
Q

what does a case study allow for

A

data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of so can be starting points of more in depth research

84
Q

strengths of case studies

A
  • offer opportunity to unveil rich and detailed information about a unique situation
  • can be used in a situation which would be unethical to examine experimentally
85
Q

weaknesses of case studies

A
  • difficult to generalise any findings due to it being a small study
  • researcher subjectivity may cause a problem
  • lacks ecological validity
86
Q

ethical issues that should be considered before the case study

A
  • no informed consent
  • no confidentiality
87
Q

what is a case study

A

a research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event which records a rich log a human experience

88
Q

economic implications relating to individuals and productivity from psychological research

A
  • when people go to work more money is contributed through the economy
  • less time off work due to mental illness - contribute more through taxation
  • individuals can return to work sooner
  • if individuals can manage their mental health better meaning work will be more productive
  • better management of people when they are at work
89
Q

economic implications of psychological research for healthcare services

A
  • if people are mentally healthier this means more NHS resources may be available for people with other conditions rather than all being focuses on mental conditions
90
Q

broader economic implications of economic research

A
  • the gender pay gap could be increased or decreased
  • attract investment from overseas into scientific research
  • changing laws such as maternity/paternity leave have an economic impact as they are government funded
91
Q

what is a peer review

A

an independent assessment process that takes place before a research study isp published

92
Q

who is a peer review done by

A

other psychologists in the same field of psychology and is conducted anonymously

93
Q

what are the five key point of a peer review (PVASO)

A

P - provide recommendations about whether the research should be published or not
V - check Validity of the research
A - assess the appropriateness if the procedure and methodology
S - judge the Significance of the research to a wider context
O - asses the works Originality and that other relevant research is detailed

94
Q

pneumonic to remember to 5 point of a peer review

A

Peer Views Are So Overrated

95
Q

strengths of a peer review

A
  • anonymity allows researcher to be honest
  • ensures substandard research does not enter the mainstream
  • protects the reputation of the discipline
  • less opportunity for plagiarized work or duplications
96
Q

limitations of a peer review

A
  • anonymity may mean researchers just criticise other psychologists in a small field
  • publication bias
  • difficult to find a suitable peer
  • if the topic is niche, poor review may happen causing sub-standard research to be published
97
Q

what is a positive correlation

A

as one variable increases, the other increases

98
Q

what is the ‘third-variable problem’

A

you cannot find the correlation between all 3 variables

99
Q

what are the types of data

A
  • qualitative
  • quantitative
  • primary
  • secondary
100
Q

+s and -s of quantitative data

A

+ simple to analyse
+ greater external validity
+ objective
- no detail
- summarised statistically

101
Q

+s and -s of qualitative data

A

+ richer detail
+ not summarised statistically
- difficult to analyse
- limited external validity
- subjective

102
Q

+s and -s of primary data

A

+ the data is fit for a purpose and authentic to investigation
+ fits to what investigator wants
- requires planning, prep and resources
- expensive

103
Q

+s and -s of secondary data

A

+ inexpensive
+ easy to access
+ does not require planning, prep or resources
- not purpose fit for investigation
- may not be what to investigator wants

104
Q

what is meta-analysis

A

a processes in which data from lots of studies that use the same techniques and research qs are combined

105
Q

what are ways to present data

A
  • tables
  • scattergrams
  • bar charts
  • line graphs
  • histograms
106
Q

characteristics of graphs and tables

A
  • clearly show the findings from a study
  • have clear title
107
Q

characteristics of bar charts

A

displays discrete data in a visual way

108
Q

characteristics of histograms

A
  • display continuous data where to bars touch each other
109
Q

characteristics of line graphs

A

display continuous data to show how something has changes with a line

110
Q

characteristics of scattergrams

A

display associations between co-variables

111
Q

what is skewed distribution

A

distribution that has a peak higher or lower then the standard distribution

112
Q

what produces a positive skew

A

mean greater than median, greater than mode

113
Q

what produces a negative skew

A

mode greater than median, greater than the mean

114
Q

what is content analysis

A

a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, theme or content in qualitative data

115
Q

how does content analysis differ from other methods like observation

A

includes both observation and narrative and relies less on experimental elements normally associated with scientific research

116
Q

what is a coding frame

A

a way to turn qualitative data into quantitative data by creating clear operational definitions for each category

117
Q

how to conduct a content analysis

A
  • define to research q or hypothesis
  • select the sample
  • develop a coding frame
  • analyse the content
  • check reliability and interpret results
118
Q

what is test-retest reliability

A

if you do it twice with the same variables and it comes up with the same variables it is reliable

119
Q

what is inter-rater reliability

A

have 2 different raters come to similar conclusions

120
Q

what are the components of psychological research

A
  • abstract
  • introduction
  • methods
  • results
  • discussion
  • conclusion
  • limitations
121
Q

what is an abstract

A

around 200 word section giving a brief overview of the paper

122
Q

what is an introduction

A

review the literature of what is already out there - lays out the aims of the article and sets the scene

123
Q

what is included in the method

A

how the research gets done, sampling, data collection, data analysis

124
Q

what is included in the results

A

a presentation of what you found in a format that is accessible like a table - identifies patterns in data

125
Q

what is included in the discussion

A

data is critically evaluated and analysed and discussed impact of results with reference to earlier research

126
Q

what is included in the conclusion

A

findings are summarised and propose possible developments

127
Q

what is included in the limitations sections

A

outlines the limitations/boundaries of the research

128
Q

what are the 8 key features that make a subject scientific

A

1 - use of a paradigm shift
2 - role of theory
3 - falsification
4 - the role of hypothesis testing
5 - use of empirical methods
6 - replication
7 - generalisation
8 - role of peer review

129
Q

1 - what is the use of a paradigm shift

A
  • brings together all the assumptions that scientists within the subject are prepared to accept about: what they are studying, how they think about itm how they will study it
  • the majority of researchers in a subject must agree with and work within a common paradigm
  • a paradigm shift occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence
130
Q

2 - what is the role of theory

A
  • a theory explains observable behaviours and events using a set of general principles
  • theories give purpose and direction to research
  • they also generate a testable hypothesis to the research
131
Q

3 - what is falsification

A
  • psychologists should hold up their research by testing the possibility to be proven wrong
  • if no evidence for the contrary to be found then it suggests the theory is correct
132
Q

4 - what is the role of hypothesis testing

A
  • allows researchers to refute or support a theory
  • done in a controlled way by altering one variable at a time
  • the degree of support determines the degree of confidence in e theory
133
Q

5 - what is the use of empirical methods

A
  • use careful observations and experiments to gather facts
  • variables need to be highly controlled and objectively measured
  • procedures need to be standardised so can be replicated
134
Q

6 - what is the role of replication

A
  • repeating the experiment using the same method to see if the same results can be achieved
  • creates confidence in results
  • other scientists will not accept it if it is not replicated
  • if the same results are produced, it creates reliability in the results
135
Q

7 - what is the role of generalisation

A
  • applying the results from a sample to the wider population and other situations
  • should be possible if the researcher used a representative sampling technique, finding are objective and an appropriate method used to gather data
136
Q

8 - what is the role of peer review

A
  • peer review checks for the quality and relevance of the research and ensures research is carried out honestly, rigorously and with integrity

A LEVEL PSYCH (21 decks)

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