Research methods Flashcards
what are the 4 types of experiments
- lab
- field
- natural
- quasi
description of lab experiments
- a research method where the experiment manipulates one or more IV
- measures the effects on the dependent variable, under controlled condition
strengths of lab experiments
- tighter control of variables
- easy to comment on cause and effect
- easy to replicate as highly controlled
limitations of lab experiments
- lacks ecological validity
- demand characteristics might also become a problem
description of field experiment
- a natural setting away from a lab
- researcher has less control and can only control the environment to some extent
- collects quantitative data
- extraneous variables are included in the experiment
strengths of field experiments
- higher ecological validity
- participants less likely to show demand characteristics
- high levels of mundane realism
limitations of field experiments
- harder to randomly assign p’s so more likely to be a change
- hard to control extraneous variables
description of natural experiments
the study of a naturally occurring situation as it unfolds in the real world so the researcher does not exert any influence
strengths of a natural experiment
- high ecological validity
- the IV cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons
- little bias from sampling or demand characteristics
limitations of natural experiments
- difficult to create cause and effect relationship due to lack of control
- difficult to replicate
- many extraneous variables
- p’s could become aware of the study causing demand characteristics
description of quasi experiment
- have an IV based on an existing difference between people and no one has manipulated this variable
- the variables just simplely ‘exist’ e.g. being olf or young
strengths of quasi experiemnts
- carried out under a controlled condition
- can be replicated
limitations of quasi experiments
- cannot randomly allocate ps so often are confounding variables
- cannot create a cause and effect relationship as it IV has not been deliberately changed
key point of lab experiments
highly controlled conditions
key point of field experiments
- it takes in a real-world setting
- the experimenter manipulates one or more IV to get a change in DV
key point of natural experiments
- happens without the effect of a researcher
- ecologically valid
- many extraneous variables that cannot be controlled
key point of quasi experiments
variables just simply exist, IV based on an existing difference between people
what is a research aim
the stated intention of what questions are planned to be answered
what is an operational definition
a description of a variable given in terms of how it is actually measured
what is an experimental hypothesis
a statement which makes certain predictions about what results will be during the investigation
what is a null hypothesis
a prediction that nothing will happen
what is a one tailed/directional hypothesis
when a hypothesis predicts the direction of the results
what is a two-tailed or non-directional hypothesis
a hypothesis that does not state a direction but states that there will be a difference between 2 sets of scores
what are extraneous variables
any variables, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it not controlled
what an confounding variables
if extraneous variables are failed to be controlled and they have impacted the results
what is experimental design
how participants are allocated to different conditions in an experiment
what is the most common way to design an experiment
experimental group and a control group
what are the three types of experimental design
- independent groups
- repeated measures
- matched pairs
what are independent groups
different people in each condition
+ves and -ves of independent groups
+ demand characteristics of less of a problem
+ order effects are less of a problem
- participant variables
what are repeated measures
the same people in both conditions
+ves and -ves of repeated measures
+ participant variables are controlled
- demand characteristics
- order effects (can be controlled by counterbalancing)
what are matched pairs
different but similar participants in each condition
+ves and -ves of matched pairs
+ demand characteristics not a problem
+ order effects are not a problem
+ participant variables can be controlled better
- no two participants are exactly the same so always going to be some participant variables
what are demand characteristics
people change their opinions on what they think people want rather than what they actually think
what are order effects
occurs when participants’ responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed
what is counterbalancing
changing the order of the groups to reduce order effects
what is the target population
a subgroup of the general population
what is the population
the large group of individuals who the researcher may be studying
what is the sample
the group of people who take part in the research drawn from the target population and presumed to be representative of the population
what happens if the sample is not representative of the population
the data is not generalisable
why is representation difficult to achieve
due to the diverse nature of individuals in a sample so is likely some bias
what is a random sample
all participants have an equal chance of being selected
+s and -s of random sampling
+ is free from research bias
- time consuming
- difficult to conduct
- no guarantee it is representative
what is systematic sampling
every nth member of the target population is selected and a sampling frame is produced
+s and -s of systematic sampling
+ avoids researcher bias, as once the system has been established the research has no influence
- difficult to achieve
- time consuming
- no guarantee it will representative
what is a stratified sample
the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and workout the proportion needed for the sample to be representative
+s and -s of a stratified sample
+ avoids researcher bias
+ designed to be representative of the population
- stratification is not perfect
what is volunteer sampling
ps put themselves forward to be part of a sample
+s and -s of volunteer sampling
+ it is easy and requires minimal input, so is less time-consuming
- volunteer bias
what is opportunity sampling
people who are available and willing to take part
+s and -s of opportunity sampling
+ it is quick and easy way of choosing ps
- research bias
- unrepresentative of the target population
most to least representative sampling type
most to least time consuming sampling type
most to least biased sampling type
what are the types of observations
- lab
- natural
- overt
- covert
- participant
- non-participant
what is a lab observation
observation carried out in an artificial setting
+s and -s of lab observation
+ can be replicated as researcher control variables
- low ecological validity
- potential outside influence from researcher
- possibility of demand characteristics
what is a natural observation
observation carried out in the ps own environment (can be covert or overt)
+s and -s of natural observation
+ high ecological validity
+ no outside inference
- hard to replicate situation so cannot check reliability
what are covert and overt observation
overt - ps know they are being watched
covert - ps do not know they are being watched
+s and -s of overt observations
+ it is possible to inform ps in advance and obtain informed consent
- demand characteristics
+s and -s of covert observation
+ no problems of demand characteristics
- less ethical as participants cannot give fully informed consent
what is participant observation
where the researcher becomes involved in the group they are observing
+s and -s of participant observation
+ researcher can obtain in depth data as they are in close proximity
- the researcher presence might influence the ps behaviour
what is non-participant observation
where there is no direct contact between the observer and those being observed
+s and -s of non-participant observations
+ demand characteristics are less likely to occur
- researcher might overlook behaviour due to lack of proximity
what are questionnaires
a set of written questions designed to collect information
characteristics of questionnaires
- can discover what people think or feel
- always pre-determined (structured)
- can provide qualitative or quantitative data from open or closed questions
what is involved in a good question
- clarity (no double negatives or double barrelled questions)
- bias
- easy to analyse
what is involved in a good questionnaire
- filler questions
- sequence of questions
- sampling techniques
- pilot study
what are filler questions
irrelevant questions to distract to respondent from the main purpose of the questionnaire
what is a pilot study
test the questions on a small group of people
strengths of a questionnaire
- can be done by lots of people quickly
- open questions allow for elaboration leading to more research
- reduces experimenter bias
- no special training needed to hand them out
weaknesses of questionnaires
- sample could be biased as to who is filling it out
- closed questions limit response (easier to summarise)
- can be time-consuming to design
- can only be filled out by those who can read and write
what is a structured interview
has predetermined questions that do not change between each interviewee
what is an unstructured interview
interviewer starts with general aims but subsequent questions are based on the bias of the answers they are given
what is a semi-structured interview
combines a predetermined set of open questions with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further.
strengths of a structured interview
- easily repeated because questions are standardised
- easy to compare answers as they are standardised
- different people can be compared
weaknesses of structured interviews
- interviewer bias
- comparability is difficult if the interviewer behaves differently or different interviewer
strengths of an unstructured interview
- more detailed information obtained
weaknesses of an unstructured interview
- requires interviewer with more skill
- questions lack objectivity
- more expensive as need an experienced interviewer
- interviewer bias
what is the effect of an interviewer
the presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondents answers may increase the amount of information provided
how do listening skills improve an interview
do not interrupt too much and when they do speak use encouraging comments to provide more detail
what are the questioning skills in an unstructured interview
- avoid repeating questions
- avoid probing too much
- ask focused questions
what is the purpose of a case study
to provide detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real-life event
what does a case study allow for
data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of so can be starting points of more in depth research
strengths of case studies
- offer opportunity to unveil rich and detailed information about a unique situation
- can be used in a situation which would be unethical to examine experimentally
weaknesses of case studies
- difficult to generalise any findings due to it being a small study
- researcher subjectivity may cause a problem
- lacks ecological validity
ethical issues that should be considered before the case study
- no informed consent
- no confidentiality
what is a case study
a research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event which records a rich log a human experience
economic implications relating to individuals and productivity from psychological research
- when people go to work more money is contributed through the economy
- less time off work due to mental illness - contribute more through taxation
- individuals can return to work sooner
- if individuals can manage their mental health better meaning work will be more productive
- better management of people when they are at work
economic implications of psychological research for healthcare services
- if people are mentally healthier this means more NHS resources may be available for people with other conditions rather than all being focuses on mental conditions
broader economic implications of economic research
- the gender pay gap could be increased or decreased
- attract investment from overseas into scientific research
- changing laws such as maternity/paternity leave have an economic impact as they are government funded
what is a peer review
an independent assessment process that takes place before a research study isp published
who is a peer review done by
other psychologists in the same field of psychology and is conducted anonymously
what are the five key point of a peer review (PVASO)
P - provide recommendations about whether the research should be published or not
V - check Validity of the research
A - assess the appropriateness if the procedure and methodology
S - judge the Significance of the research to a wider context
O - asses the works Originality and that other relevant research is detailed
pneumonic to remember to 5 point of a peer review
Peer Views Are So Overrated
strengths of a peer review
- anonymity allows researcher to be honest
- ensures substandard research does not enter the mainstream
- protects the reputation of the discipline
- less opportunity for plagiarized work or duplications
limitations of a peer review
- anonymity may mean researchers just criticise other psychologists in a small field
- publication bias
- difficult to find a suitable peer
- if the topic is niche, poor review may happen causing sub-standard research to be published
what is a positive correlation
as one variable increases, the other increases
what is the ‘third-variable problem’
you cannot find the correlation between all 3 variables
what are the types of data
- qualitative
- quantitative
- primary
- secondary
+s and -s of quantitative data
+ simple to analyse
+ greater external validity
+ objective
- no detail
- summarised statistically
+s and -s of qualitative data
+ richer detail
+ not summarised statistically
- difficult to analyse
- limited external validity
- subjective
+s and -s of primary data
+ the data is fit for a purpose and authentic to investigation
+ fits to what investigator wants
- requires planning, prep and resources
- expensive
+s and -s of secondary data
+ inexpensive
+ easy to access
+ does not require planning, prep or resources
- not purpose fit for investigation
- may not be what to investigator wants
what is meta-analysis
a processes in which data from lots of studies that use the same techniques and research qs are combined
what are ways to present data
- tables
- scattergrams
- bar charts
- line graphs
- histograms
characteristics of graphs and tables
- clearly show the findings from a study
- have clear title
characteristics of bar charts
displays discrete data in a visual way
characteristics of histograms
- display continuous data where to bars touch each other
characteristics of line graphs
display continuous data to show how something has changes with a line
characteristics of scattergrams
display associations between co-variables
what is skewed distribution
distribution that has a peak higher or lower then the standard distribution
what produces a positive skew
mean greater than median, greater than mode
what produces a negative skew
mode greater than median, greater than the mean
what is content analysis
a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, theme or content in qualitative data
how does content analysis differ from other methods like observation
includes both observation and narrative and relies less on experimental elements normally associated with scientific research
what is a coding frame
a way to turn qualitative data into quantitative data by creating clear operational definitions for each category
how to conduct a content analysis
- define to research q or hypothesis
- select the sample
- develop a coding frame
- analyse the content
- check reliability and interpret results
what is test-retest reliability
if you do it twice with the same variables and it comes up with the same variables it is reliable
what is inter-rater reliability
have 2 different raters come to similar conclusions
what are the components of psychological research
- abstract
- introduction
- methods
- results
- discussion
- conclusion
- limitations
what is an abstract
around 200 word section giving a brief overview of the paper
what is an introduction
review the literature of what is already out there - lays out the aims of the article and sets the scene
what is included in the method
how the research gets done, sampling, data collection, data analysis
what is included in the results
a presentation of what you found in a format that is accessible like a table - identifies patterns in data
what is included in the discussion
data is critically evaluated and analysed and discussed impact of results with reference to earlier research
what is included in the conclusion
findings are summarised and propose possible developments
what is included in the limitations sections
outlines the limitations/boundaries of the research
what are the 8 key features that make a subject scientific
1 - use of a paradigm shift
2 - role of theory
3 - falsification
4 - the role of hypothesis testing
5 - use of empirical methods
6 - replication
7 - generalisation
8 - role of peer review
1 - what is the use of a paradigm shift
- brings together all the assumptions that scientists within the subject are prepared to accept about: what they are studying, how they think about itm how they will study it
- the majority of researchers in a subject must agree with and work within a common paradigm
- a paradigm shift occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence
2 - what is the role of theory
- a theory explains observable behaviours and events using a set of general principles
- theories give purpose and direction to research
- they also generate a testable hypothesis to the research
3 - what is falsification
- psychologists should hold up their research by testing the possibility to be proven wrong
- if no evidence for the contrary to be found then it suggests the theory is correct
4 - what is the role of hypothesis testing
- allows researchers to refute or support a theory
- done in a controlled way by altering one variable at a time
- the degree of support determines the degree of confidence in e theory
5 - what is the use of empirical methods
- use careful observations and experiments to gather facts
- variables need to be highly controlled and objectively measured
- procedures need to be standardised so can be replicated
6 - what is the role of replication
- repeating the experiment using the same method to see if the same results can be achieved
- creates confidence in results
- other scientists will not accept it if it is not replicated
- if the same results are produced, it creates reliability in the results
7 - what is the role of generalisation
- applying the results from a sample to the wider population and other situations
- should be possible if the researcher used a representative sampling technique, finding are objective and an appropriate method used to gather data
8 - what is the role of peer review
- peer review checks for the quality and relevance of the research and ensures research is carried out honestly, rigorously and with integrity
