Reproduction

Question 1

meiosis 1 begins with a ___ ___ where ___ ___ are separated, reducing the number from ___ to ___
meiosis 2 is an ___ ___, where the ___ ___ are separated resulting in ___ ___ ___

Answer 1

meiosis 1 begins with a reduction division where homologous chromosomes are separated, reducing the number from diploid to haploid
meiosis 2 is an equatorial division, where the sister chromatids are separated resulting in haploid daughter cells

Question 2

crossing over occurs during ___ producing ___ in the genetic pool
the ___ pairs line up, matching the ___ of each gene, then crossing over occurs when they ___ (between ___ and ___ chromosomes) and ___ ___ ___ ___ occurs

Answer 2

crossing over occurs during prophase producing variation in the genetic pool
the homologous pairs line up, matching the locus of each gene, then crossing over occurs when they condense (between maternal and paternal chromosomes) and random genetic material exchange occurs

Question 3

to prevent maternal and paternal chromosome segregation, during ___ the chromosomes align as ___ in a ___ order ensuring a ___ ___ of both chromosomes

Answer 3

to prevent maternal and paternal chromosome segregation, during metaphase the chromosomes align as pairs in a random order ensuring a subsequent reshuffling of both chromosomes

Question 4

primordial germ cells undergo lots of ___ ___ in the ___ to populate the ___ and ___ with cells required to make ___
these cells are ___
these will then undergo ___ to generate ___ ___ capable of ___

Answer 4

primordial germ cells undergo lots of mititoc divisions in the gonads to populate the ovaries and testes with cells required to make gametes
these cells are diploid
these will then undergo meiosis to generate haploid gametes capable of fertilisation

Question 5

oogonia (starting cells of ___) are produced by ___ ___ ___ dividing by ___
they begin ___ but only get to the point of ___ ? before becoming ___, where they are called ___ ___and they will remain like this until ___

Answer 5

oogonia (starting cells of oogenesis) are produced by primordial germ cells dividing by mitosis
they begin meiosis but only get to the point of prophase 1 before becoming arrested, where they are called primary oogonia and they will remain like this until puberty

Question 6

oogonia can be encased in ___ ___ made of ___ cells, which during ___ and under ___ ___, will ___ to support the oogonium becoming a ___ ___
the oocyte will then be released as a ___ ___ into the ___ ___

Answer 6

oogonia can be encased in primordial follicles made of granulosa cells, which during puberty and under hormonal influence, will thicken to support the oogonium, becoming a preovulatory follicle
the oocyte will then be released as a secondary oocyte into the reproductive system

Question 7

primary oocytes will resume ___ during ___ and under ___ ___, where a ___ ___ and a ___ ___ (___) will be produced
the ___ ___ will be released into the ___ ___

Answer 7

primary oocytes will resume meiosis during puberty and under hormonal influence, where a secondar oocyte and a polar body (degenerate)will be produced
the secondary oocyte will be released into the reproductive system

Question 8

if the secondar oocyte becomes ___, ___ ? occurs resulting in the second ___ ___ and the ___ formation

Answer 8

if the secondar oocyte becomes fertilised, meiosis 2 occurs resulting in the second polar body and the ovum formation

Question 9

spermatogonia (___ cell in ___) undergo ___ to create ___ ? ___ (___ ___) and ___ ? ___ which will activate during ___ to become a ___ ___ ___ within the ___ ___ of the testis

Answer 9

spermatogonia (stem cell in spermatogenesis) undergo mitosis to create type A spermatogonia (stem cells) and type B spermatogonia which will activate during puberty to become a haploid primary spermatocyte within the seminiferous epithelium of the testis

Question 10

primary spermatocytes undergo ___ ? to produce ___ ___, which then undergo ___ ? to produce ? ___ ___

Answer 10

primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis 1 to produce secondary spermatocytes, which then undergo meiosis 2 to produce 4 identical spermatids

Question 11

spermiogenesis begins with ___ (round cells with lots of ___) which will undergo ___ resulting in ___ ___ ___ to form the ___ structure and ___/___/___ formation to become a ___ (sperm cell)

Answer 11

spermiogenesis begins with spermatids (round cells with lots of cytoplasm) which will undergo differenciation resulting in nuclear material condensing to form the head structure and flagella/neck/midpiece formation to become a spermatozoa (sperm cell)

Question 12

what are the 3 classes of hormones?

Answer 12

proteins/polypeptides
steroids
amino acid tyrosine derivatives

Question 13

receptors can be divided into 2 group: ones on ___ ___ and ___ receptors that interact with ___ ___
they are present in ___ and ___
they are mainly metabolised in the ___ and partly the ___

Answer 13

receptors can be divided into 2 group: ones on cell surface and intracellular receptors that interact with lipophilic hormones
they are present in serum and tissues
they are mainly metabolised in the liver and partly the kidney

Question 14

steriod hormones are synthesised from ___ ___ from ___, which occurs in the ___ and ___ ___
they arent stored prior to ___ (as they are ___ ___ and ___ ___) so they are ___ upon synthesis
they circulate in ___ bound to ___ ___

Answer 14

steriod hormones are synthesised from enzymatic modification from cholestorol, which occurs in the mitochondria and smooth ER
they arent stored prior to secretion (as they are lipid soluble and membrane permeable) so they are released upon synthesis
they circulate in blood bound to plasma proteins

Question 15

steroid hormones enter the target cell, binds to a ___ ___ ___ in the cell, then a ___-___ ___ is formed which travels to the ___, which binds to ___ to activate ___ forming ___, which moves into the ___ where it is ___

Answer 15

steroid hormones enter the target cell, binds to a steriod hormone receptor in the cell, then a hormone-receptor complex is formed which travels to the nucleus, which binds to DNA to activate transcription forming mRNA, which moves into the cytoplasm where it is translated

Question 16

oestrogen is a mixture of ___ and ___ ___ can be secreted from the ___ or converted from ___
___ is produced by the ___ from direct synthesis of ___ or conversion from ___
the enzyme ___ is responsible for the conversion
oestrogens are involved in ___ ___ ___ development, ___ ___ control, and ___

Answer 16

oestrogen is a mixture of oestrone and oestradiol
oestrone can be secreted from the ovary or converted from androstenedione
oestradiol is produced by the ovary from direct synthesis of follicles or conversion from oestrone
the enzyme aromatase is responsible for the conversion
oestrogens are involved in secondary sex characteristics development, menstrual cycle control, and pregnancy

Question 17

androgens are synthesised in the ___, ___ and ___ ___ (___ ___ approx ??% of daily production in M and F)
they regulate male ___ ___ ___ development, male ___ ___ ___ and control ___ and ___
androgen examples: ___, ___, ___

Answer 17

androgens are synthesised in the testes, ovary and adrenal gland (adrenal cortex approx 50% of daily production in M and F)
they regulate male primary sex organ development, male secondary sex characteristics and control libido and arousal
androgen examples: testosterone, dihydrotestostorone, androstenedione

Question 18

progestogens (progestins) are synthesised from ___ by ___
they are produced in the ___ ___ of the ___, ___ ___ and ___
they control ___ development (___ ___ control), ___ and ___ ___ development

Answer 18

progestogens (progestins) are synthesised from cholestorol by pregnenolone
they are produced in the corpus luteum of the ovary, adrenal glands and placenta
they control endometrial development (smooth muscle control), pregnancy and mammary gland development

Question 19

the hypothalamus links the ___ and ___ systems
it is located below the ___ and is part of the ___ system
it controls ___ ___, ___, ___, ___ etc.

Answer 19

the hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems
it is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system
it controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep etc.

Question 20

the pituitary is an ___ ___ suspended from the ___ of the brain by the ___ ___
it has an ___ and a ___ portion
the ___-___ ___ system allows connection between the ___ and the pituitary

Answer 20

the pituitary is an endocrine gland suspended from the underside of the brain by the pituitary stalk
it has an anterior and a posterior portion
the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system allows connection between the hypothalamus and the pituitary

Question 21

some hormones produced in the posterior pituitary include ___-___ ___ which controls ___ ___ in the ___, and ___ which promotes ___ ___ during ___ (also ___ ___ during ___)

Answer 21

some hormones produced in the posterior pituitary include anti-diuretic hormone which controls water retention in the kidneys, and oxytocin which promotes uterine contractions during labour (also milk ejection during lactation)

Question 22

some hormones produced in the anterior pituitary are ___ which regulates ___ ___ (and ___ ___), ___ ___ stimiulating ___ ___ and ___, ___ ___ ___ which stimulates ___ ___ synthesis, ___ ___ which stimulates ___ secretion from the ___ ___, and ___ which stimulates ___ ___

Answer 22

some hormones produced in the anterior pituitary are FSH which regulates gamete production (and reproductive hormones), growth hormone stimiulating cell proliferation and growth, thyroid stimulating hormone which stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis, adrenocorticotrophic hormone which stimulates cortisol secretion from the adrenal gland, and prolactin which stimulates milk production

Question 23

reproduction is regulated by interactions between the ___-___-___ axis
the hypothalamus secretes ___ ___ ___ (___) which stimulates the ___ ___ to release ___ ___ ___ (___) and ___ ___ (___)
the ___/___ responds to levels of ___ and secrete ___ ___ ___

Answer 23

reproduction is regulated by interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
the hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) which stimule anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH)
the ovaries/testes responds to levels of gonadotropin and secrete steriod sex hormones

Question 24

during hypothalamic control ___ cells produce GnRH which is secreted into ___ ___ in a ___ manner
it activates its receptor ___ within the ___ ___ which stimulated the release of ___

Answer 24

during hypothalamic control neurosecretory cells produce GnRH which is secreted into portal vessels in a pulsatile manner
it activates its receptor GnRHR within the anterior pituitary which stimulated the release of gonadotropins

Question 25

the second level of hormonal control of reproduction occurs in the ___ ___ where the ___ ___ secretes ___ ___ that act on the ___/___ such as ___ or ___, and the ___ ___ secretes ___ (involved in ___ and ___)

Answer 25

the second level of hormonal control of reproduction occurs in the pituitary gland where the anterior pituitary secretes peptide hormones that act on the ovary/testis such as FSH or LH, and the posterior pituitary secretes oxytocin (involved in childbirth and lactation)

Question 26

in males FSH stimulates ___ ___ to undergo ___ and enhances ___ ___ ___ production in ___ cells
LH acts on ___ ___ to regulate ___ ___

Answer 26

in males FSH stimulates primary spermatocytes to undergo meiosis and enhances androgen binding protein production in sertoli cells
LH acts on leydig cells to regulate testosterone production

Question 27

the ___, ___ and ___ represent the third level of reproductive hormonal control
levels of ___ and ___ trigger ___ ___ and regulate ___ ___ ___ (___ and ___), which act on ___ ___ in the reproductive system

Answer 27

the ovaries, testes and placenta represent the third level of reproductive hormonal control
levels of FSH and LH trigger follicle maturation and regulate steriod hormone production (oestrogen and androgens), which act on target tissues in the reproductive system

Question 28

a feedback mechanism is a ___ where a product feeds back to control its ___, allowing ___ ___ to be kept within a ___ ___

Answer 28

a feedback mechanism is a loop where a product feeds back to control its production, allowing hormone concentration to be kept within a narrow range

Question 29

negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to ___ ___ (e.g ___/___ feeds back to ___/___ to inhibit release of ___, ___ and ___)

Answer 29

negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to decrease production (e.g oestrogen/testosterone feeds back to hypothalamus/pituitary to inhibit release of GnRH, FSH and LH)

Question 30

positive feedback is when a product feeds back to ___ ___ (e.g ___ levels during ___-___ ___, or ___ for ___)

Answer 30

positive feedback is when a product feeds back to increase production (e.g oestrogen levels during mid-menstrual cycle, or prolactin for breastfeeding)

Question 31

erections are mediated by the ___ ___ at the level of ?? to ?? in the ___ ___
the penis becomes ___ with ___
these changes are accompanied by systemic effects such as increased ___ ___ ___, increased ___ ___, and ___

Answer 31

erections are mediated by the parasympathetic plexus at the level of S2 to S3 in the spinal cord
the penis becomes engorged with blood
these changes are accompanied by systemic effects such as increased skeletal muscle tension, increased HR, and hyperventilation

Question 32

the vagina and clitoris ___ with ___ during sexual arousal causing a ___ ___ of the ___
the ___ of the vagina at the ___ level as well as the ___ all increase
the uterus ___
___ ___, ___ ___ and ___ ___ all increase as with males

Answer 32

the vagina and clitoris engorge with blood during sexual arousal causing a deepening colour of the labia
the circumference of the vagina at the pelvic level as well as the length all increase
the uterus elevates
RR, HR and BP all increase as with males

Question 33

penis stimulation results in ___ ___ of the ___ and ___ muscles (a ___ reflex under ___ control)
this requires contractions of structures such as the ___ ___, ___ ___ and ___
the filling of the ___ stimulates ___ ___ which contracts ___ ___ resulting in ___

Answer 33

penis stimulation results in reflex contractions of the bulbocavernosus and ischiocavernosus muscles (a spinal reflex under sympathetic control)
this requires contractions of structures such as the ductus deferens, seminal vesicles and prostate
the filling of the urethra stimulates genital nerves which contracts penis muscles resulting in ejaculation

Question 34

a vaginal orgasm is caused by stimulation of the ___ and ___
___ increases and the labia become more ___ due to increased ___ ___
during orgasm, the clitoris ___ and a ___ ___ occurs in the ___ ___ and ___ ___

Answer 34

a vaginal orgasm is caused by stimulation of the clitoris and labia
lubrication increases and the labia become more engorged due to increased blood flow
during orgasm, the clitoris retracts and a contraction succession occurs in the vaginal walls and pelvic floor

Question 35

when considering ovarian function the menstrual cycle can be split into the ___ ___ phase and the ___ ___ phase
the corresponsing phases in the endometrium are termed the ___ and ___ phases
the ___ phase represents the time of menstruation

Answer 35

when considering ovarian function the menstrual cycle can be split into the preovulatory follicular phase and the postovulatory luteal phase
the corresponsing phases in the endometrium are termed the proliferative and secretory phases
the menstrual phase represents the time of menstruation

Question 36

the follicular phase varies from around ??-?? days chatacterised by ___ ___ ___
___ production is low and ___ is rising due to conversion from ___ to ___ via ___

Answer 36

the follicular phase varies from around 10-14 days chatacterised by dominant follicle growth
progestorone production is low and oestrogen is rising due to conversion from androgens to oestrogens via aromatase

Question 37

in the development from a primary follicle from a ___ follicle, the ___ cells around the oocyte are controlled by ___ ___ loops of ___ ___ growth factor (___) and ___
___ cells are recruited by a ___ ___ loop of ___ ? and ?
___ ? and ___ help mature the cells

Answer 37

in the development from a primary follicle from a primordial follicle, the pre-granulosa cells around the oocyte are controlled by positive feedback loops of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and KL
stromal cells are recruited by a positive feedback loop of BMP 4 and 7
BMP 15 and GDF help mature the cells

Question 38

during secondary follicle development, ___ secretion increases to stimulate ___ ___
___ levels increase around ?-? days after the ___ increase
the ___ develops meaning the follicle gains an ___ ___ ___
the granulosa cells develop ___, ___ and ___ receptors

Answer 38

during secondary follicle development, FSH secretion increases to stimulate follicle growth
LH levels increase around 1-2 days after the FSH increase
the theca develops meaning the follicle gains an independent blood supply
the granulosa cells develop FSH, androgen and oestrogen receptors

Question 39

after follicles are recuited, ___ production increases by ___ conversion (of ___ by the ___ cells) produced in the ___ ___
this stimulates ___ and ___ synthesis but inhibits their ___, decreasing their levels (more-so ___)
developing follicles produce ___, which inhibits ___ but not ___
levels of ___, particularly ___ increase

Answer 39

after follicles are recuited, oestradiol production increases by androgen conversion (of oestrogen by the granulosa cells) produced in the theca interna
this stimulates FSH and LH synthesis but inhibits their secretion, decreasing their levels (more-so FSH)
developing follicles produce inhibin, which inhibits FSH but not LH
levels of oestrogen, particularly oestradiol increase

Question 40

in the proliferative phase, ___ from the ovary act on the ___ causing ___ ___, ___ ___ ___ and ___ ___ growth

Answer 40

in the proliferative phase, oestrogens from the ovary act on the endometrium causing stroma thickening, uterine gland elongation and spiral artery growth

Question 41

at the end of the proliferative phase, rising oestrogen increases ___ responsiveness to ___ causing a surge in ___ ___ of ___
___ peaks and ___ increases
high ___ levels triggers ___ secretion by ___ (though ___ ___)
stored ___ is released in massive amounts with a small increase in ___
ovulation occurs around day ?? and ___ decreases

Answer 41

at the end of the proliferative phase, rising oestrogen increases pituitary responsiveness to GnRH causing a surge in hypothalamic secretion of GnRH
oestradiol peaks and progesterone increases
high oestradial levels triggers LH secretion by gonadotropones (though positive feedback)
stored LH is released in massive amounts with a small increase in FSH
ovulation occurs around day 14 and oestradiol decreases

Question 42

the LH surge stimulates ___ which breaks down ___ ___ releasing the ___ ___ over ??-?? hours
it also triggers first ___ ___ of the ___ within around ?? hours of ovulation

Answer 42

the LH surge stimulates enzymes which breaks down follicle wall releasing the mature oocyte over 16-32 hours
it also triggers first meiotic division of the oocyte within around 36 hours of ovulation

Question 43

the luteal/secretory phase lasts around ?? days and involves ___ ___ formation from the ___, which secretes ___ in quantities that peak around ??-?? days after ovulation
___ stimulates ___ ___ development

Answer 43

the luteal/secretory phase lasts around 14 days and involves corpus luteum formation from the follicle, which secretes progesterone in quantities that peak around 6-8 days after ovulation
progesterone stimulates secretory endometrium development

Question 44

during the luteal phase levels of ___, ___ and ___ are high which decreases ___ and ___
___ and ___ decrease later in this phase
if implantation occurs, the ___ ___ remains, supported by ___ ___ ___ produced by the developing ___

Answer 44

during the luteal phase levels of oestradiol, progesterone and inhibin are high which decreases FSH and LH
oestradiol and progesterone decrease later in this phase
if implantation occurs, the corpus luteum remains, supported by human chorionic gonadotropin produced by the developing embryo

Question 45

after ?? days, the developing embryo produces the hormone ___ ___ ___ (___) which signals to the ___ ___ to secrete ___ which maintains the ___ ___ which supports a pregnancy

Answer 45

after 9 days, the developing embryo produces the hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) which signals to the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone which maintains the endometrial lining which supports a pregnancy

Question 46

menstruation begins with the regression of the ___ ___ and reduction in ___ secretion
there is a ___ infiltration of the ___, and a ___ and ___ of ___ ___ (leading to ___ and ___ ___)

Answer 46

menstruation begins with the regression of the corpus luteum and reduction in progesterone secretion
there is a leukocyte infiltration of the endometrium, and a constriction and breakdown of spiral arteries (leading to ischemia and tissue necrosis)

Question 47

in the vagina, low ___ during the follicular phase causes vaginal epithelium to be ___ and ___
once ___ increases in the late follicular phase, ___ ___ mature and epithelium ___
during the luteal phase mature ___ ___ shed as ___ ___

Answer 47

in the vagina, low oestrogen during the follicular phase causes vaginal epithelium to be thin and pale
once oestrogen increases in the late follicular phase, squamous cells mature and epithelium thickens
during the luteal phase mature squamous cells shed as cellular debris

Question 48

during late follicular phase when ___ levels increase, there is increased cervical ___ and ___ ___ production allows ___ ___
during the luteal phase when ___ increases, the ___ ___ thickens reducing ___

Answer 48

during late follicular phase when oestrogen levels increase, there is increased cervical vascularity, and watery mucous production allows sperm passage
during the luteal phase when progesterone increases, the cervical mucous thickens reducing elasticity