Relationships -> Evolutionary Explanations Of Partner Preferences

Question 1

Sexual Selection and Human Reproductive Behaviour

Answer 1

Males have gametes which can reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure and once they start being produced, they do not usually stop until the man dies. Female’s gametes are, in contrast, much less plentiful; they are released in a limited time frame and require more energy to produce. This difference is called anisogamy and it means that men and women use different strategies to ensure reproductive success.

Question 2

Intrasexual Selection

Answer 2

An individual’s traits enables them to compete with members of the same sex. Anisogamy suggests that a male’s best evolutionary strategy is to be promiscuous. Males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile partners. Males might engage in mate guarding where they guard their partner to prevent them mating with anyone else, as they are very fearful of having to raise another man’s child (cuckoldry)

Question 3

Intersexual selection

Answer 3

An individual’s traits increase their attractiveness and thereby induce members of the opposite sex to mate with them. Anisogamy suggests that a women’s best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner. Females will tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status, and resources. Thus the male partner is able to protect them and provide for their children.

According to the Sexy Sons Hypothesis females select male partners with desirable traits because they would like their sons to inherit these attractive traits

Question 4

Strengths of Sexual Selection

Answer 4

Buss conducted a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (such as occupation) whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.

Question 5

Weaknesses of Sexual Selection

Answer 5

• Evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships, e.g. non-heterosexual relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, e.g. arranged marriages
• The evolutionary approach is deterministic suggesting that we have little free-will in partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we do have some control over our partner preferences.

Question 6

Self-Disclosure

Answer 6

(Central concept in social penetration)
This is the revealing of personal information about the self to another person. When done in the right way, self-disclosure increases attraction. As people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of self-disclosure will increase. Self-disclosing too quickly can reduce attraction. People expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give (reciprocal self-disclosure)

Question 7

Strengths of Self-disclosure

Answer 7

• Research conducted by Altman and Taylor supports the theory of self-disclosure. They found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. The person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable
• Kito found research evidence to support the idea of self-disclosure across different cultures. Kito investigated Japanese and American students in different types of relationships, and found that self-disclosure was high for Japanese and American students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual.

Question 8

Weaknesses of Self-disclosure

Answer 8

• It seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on self-disclosure alone. Self-disclosure might be an important element, but other factors are also needed in order to increase attraction, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs.
• Sprecher found research evidence that the level of self-disclosure received is the best predictor of liking and loving, rather than the amount of self-disclosure given. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure

Question 9

Physical Attractiveness

Answer 9

Physical attractiveness affects attraction in romantic relationships. Men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness in the short & long-term. Physical attractiveness is also very important for females when choosing a partner, especially in the short-term. What is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture and time.

Question 10

Halo Effect

Answer 10

The halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone. Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, and trustworthy. People tend to behave positively towards people who are attractive and this creates a self-fulfilling prophecy (the attractive person behaves even more positively because of the attention)

Question 11

Strengths of the Halo Effect

Answer 11

Palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found out that the physically attractive person had no expertise in politics.

Question 12

Weaknesses of the Halo Effect

Answer 12

Towhey asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. Participants also completed a MACHO scale (measured sexist attitudes & behaviour). It was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness. Therefore, the influence of physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors

Question 13

The Matching Hypothesis

Answer 13

Walster proposed that people choose a romantic partner of similar attractiveness to themselves. The focus is on matching physical attractiveness. Individuals focus attention on prospective partners of perceived similar attractiveness, effectively narrowing the range of available partners to those who are attainable. There is a pragmatic balance between desire for the most attractive partner and a realistic awareness of our own level of attractiveness in order to avoid rejection.

Question 14

Strengths of The Matching Hypothesis

Answer 14

Members of real couples were each separately assessed for attractiveness rating. These were then found to correlate for level of physical attractiveness. The same correlation was not found for fictitious pairings

Question 15

Weaknesses of the The Matching Hypothesis

Answer 15

Sometimes a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. Often a rebalance of traits will occur, whereby the less physically attractive person has some other traits to make up for their lack of physical attractiveness (e.g. being rich). This is called complex matching

Question 16

Filter Theory

Answer 16

Kerchoff and David proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners. When we meet a potential partner we engage in;
- Social Demography
- Similarity in Attitudes
- Complementarity

Question 17

Strengths of Filter Theory

Answer 17

• Taylor found evidence to support filter theory. He found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 had married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography part of filter theory. Individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them and have a similar background to them.
• Hoyle supports the filter theory when looking at the importance of attitude similarity and sharing common values for attraction. Hoyle found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more strongly than actual attitude similarity. Tidwell tested this hypothesis during a speed dating event whereby participants had to make quick decisions about attraction. He measured actual and perceived similarity of attitudes using a questionnaire and found that perceived similarity predicted romantic liking more than actual similarity.

Question 18

Weaknesses of Filter Theory

Answer 18

• Filter theory has been criticised because it suggests that people are attracted to each other because they have similarity of attitudes. Anderson found from his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes and emotional responses over time which increased attraction. At the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar (emotional convergence)
• Research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory in that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress and form. The internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have a different ethnicity, social class and background. We might meet people who are outside of our demographic limits, and this is very apparent now, compared to the past