PSYCHOLOGY - BASIC Flashcards
Non associative learning
- habituation
- sensitisation
- pseudo conditioning (cross-sensitisation)
- Habituation –> repeated stimulation = reduction in
response over time as the organism ‘learns’ the stimulus ‘if you something habitually, the novelty wears off’. - sensitisation –> repeated exposure = increase response
- pseudo-conditioning (cross-sensatisation) - emergence of a response to a previously neutral stimulus simply as a result of exposures to a different but powerful stimulus.
Associative learning
- Classic conditioning
- operant conditioning
- social learning theory
Classic conditioning - association of two events e.g. dog is passive in event
operant conditioning - consequences from ones actions eg human acts on environment and learns
social learning theory - both classic and operant
Classical conditioning
- Unconditioned response
- Unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus + conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
- Acquisition
unconditioned response (dog salivating)
unconditioned stimulus (sees food)
neutral stimulus –> conditioned stimulus (bell)
conditioned response (salivaiton with bell)
Acquisition = association between CS + UCR - 3-15 pairings
Delayed/ forward conditioning
Backward conditioning
Trace conditioning
Delayed/ forward conditioning –> Bell before food
Backward conditioning - food before bell (not useful in animals but used in adverts)
Trace conditioning - CS presented and removed before UCS - depends on memory (under 0.5ms)
Higher-order conditioning
already conditioned stimulus CS1 as UCS for the next
level of conditioning
animals limit is 4th order
stimulus generalisation
discrimination
extinction + spontaenous recovery
stimulus generalisation –> albert afriad of all fluffy white not just rats
discrimination –> e.g. a child may be afraid of dogs but not all four-legged animals
extinction - reduction/disappearance of a learned response when the UCS – CS pairing is not available anymore. + spontaenous recovery = regaining it
Counter conditioning
Counter conditioning - previously conditioned response replaced by new response eg aversion therapy
Positive reinforced
Negative reinforcer
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
Positive Reinforcer –> Food for pressing a lever (given) / star chart
Negative Reinforcer –> Ceasing of electric shock on pressing a lever (taken away) or compulsions in OCD
Positive Punishment –> Points on your driving license for speeding (given)
Negative Punishment –> A monetary fine from a parking ticket (taken away)
Primary Reinforcer –> Stimulus affecting biological needs (such as food)
Secondary Reinforcer –> Stimulus reinforcing behaviour associated with primary reinforcers
(money, praise)
Premack’s principle (a.k.a. Grandma’s rule):
avoidance learning -
premacks- high-frequency behaviour (eating dessert) can be used to reinforce low frequency behaviour (eating greens) e.g. “eat your greens and you can have dessert
people are more likely to do something they don’t like if they can do something they enjoy afterward:
avoidance - organism learns to avoid certain responses eg escape conditioning agoraphobia - panic avoided by never leaving house
operant:
aversive conditioning
covert reinforcement
covert sensitzation
flooding
Shaping
operant = reward and punishment
aversive - punishment to reduce frequency eg disulfiram and alcohol
covert reinforcement- imagining pleasant event eg imagining Mrcp psych graduation to motivate mcqs
covert sensitazation- imagine unpleasant
flooding: eg stand top burj khalifa to overcome fear heights +( implosion when its only imagined )
shaping- reward each time behaviour is closer to desired eg dog jump through hoop
chaining
incubation
stimulus preparedness (who’s idea?)
learned helplessness (who’s idea?)
reciprocal inhibition
cueing
chaining- reinforcing a series of related behaviours
incubation - emotional response increases in strength if brief but repeated exposure
stimulus preparedness (seligman) evolutionary hard wired
learned helplessness (Seligman) - when escape seems impossible an animal stops making attempts to escape
reciprocol inhibition (Wolpe) - If stimulus with desired response and stimulus with the undesired response are presented together repeatedly, then the incompatibility leads to a reduction in frequency of the undesired response eg dog bark at friend- hug same time, less dog bark
cueing - e.g. fingers on lips to reduce chatter
+ fading when its unlearned
Banduras social learning theory
cognition in learning
bobo doll
learn simply by observing
cognition in learning
1. attention, visual imagine encoded, retain information, motor copy and then motivation to act
bobo doll- children watching a model show aggression to doll learning to display aggression without any reinforcement
cognitive learning + who
insight learning + who
cognitive learning (Tollman) reinforcement might be neccessary
insight (Kohler)- purely congitive and not based on stimulus response
Gagnes learning hierachy
Stages Gagne’s learning hierarchy
1 Classical conditioning (signal learning)
2 Operant conditioning
3 Chaining
4 Verbal association
5 Discrimination learning
6 Concept learning
7 Rule learning
8 Problem solving
Figure ground differentiation
contour, size, orientation and symmetry
cocktail party phenomemnon is how we manage auditory figure ground
dichotoc listening tests = differentiate L and R whisper in ears
Gestalt:
visual cliff - what age developed
perceptual constancy
Autokinesis
global processing occurs before local processing eg incomplete closed figures percieved as fully closed
visual cliff- thick glass test shows children 6months plus wont venture on deep side so when they percieve depth
perceptual constancy - door looks same from any angle or light
Autokinesis- if light is shown from a small, dim fixed light source for a long time in dark room = appear as tho light source is moving = explains UFO sightings and can also affect pilots.
phi phenomenon
phi phenomenon- (PHI lip books) Wertheimer - false perception of motion is produced by a succession of still images shown with fixed time interval rapidly
theories of perception
bottom up
top down -
perceptual set
bottom up- perception is data driven optic array thats pieced together
top down- using information already known from higher cortical areas hence why illusins of lines >–< vs <–> muller and lyer
perceptual set= readiness to percieve affected by motivation eg ufos seen by people wanting to
Illusions and hallucinations
Illusion is defined as any perceptual situation in which a physical object is perceived but appears different from what it really is e.g. a white wall appears yellow if a yellow light is shone on it
A hallucination is an experience in which an object (e.g. sound or light) is perceived in the absence of any corresponding object in the real world.
A hallucination is often indistinguishable from genuine perception.
Innate visual processes
Learnt visual processes
acuity achieved?
innate- visual scanning, tracking, fixating, figure-ground
discrimination are present from birth
learnt- size constancy, shape constancy,
depth perception, shape discrimination
6 months 6:6 acuity achieved
Broadbent’s early selection filter theory:
+ added later..
Triesmans attenuation theory
Deutsch-Norman late selection filter model: aka …
Ability to process information is capacity limited. temporary buffer reiceves all information and passes to selective filter.
(+ later added pigeon holing- similar to filtering but selection is based on categorisation)
Triesmans attenuation theory - relevance of message matters
Deutsch-Norman late selection filter model: This model rejects Broadbent and suggests that filtering occurs only later, after all inputs are analysed at a higher level / called the pertinence model.
Studies of attention in schizophrenia
Underlying attentional abnormality for those with a genetic predisposition for psychosis.
- overall reaction time is much slower in patients with schizophrenia + their relatives
- sustained attention, distraction, verbal memory and controlled
processing are also affected.
3 types of memory forms
sensory- no processing involved
short term - 7+/- 2 items miller. maintaince rehersal can increase.
Uses acoustic encoding. needs elaborative encoding to become LTM
long term - semantic encoding. unlimited capacity and duration.
Baddley and hitch - working memory model
retrieval modes
phonological loop + visuospatial sketch pad
retrieval modes
- recognition
- recall
- reintegration /reconstruction
