PSYCHOLOGY - BASIC Flashcards
Non associative learning
- habituation
- sensitisation
- pseudoconditioning (cross-sensatisation)
- Habituation –> repeated stimulation = reduction in
response over time as the organism ‘learns’ the stimulus ‘if you something habitually, the novely wears off’. - sensitisation –> repeated exposure = increase response
- pseudoconditioning (cross-sensatisation) - emergence of a response to a previously neutral
stimulus simply as a result of exposures to a different but powerful stimulus.
Associative learning
- Classic conditioning
- operant conditioning
- social learning theory
Classic conditioning - association of two events e.g. dog is passive in event
operant conditioning - consequences from ones actions eg human acts on environment and learns
social learning theory - both classic and operant
Classical conditioning
- Unconditioned response
- Unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus + conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
- Acquisition
unconditioned response (dog salivating)
unconditioned stimulus (sees food)
neutral stimulus –> conditioned stimulus (bell)
conditioned response (salivaiton with bell)
Acquisition = association between CS + UCR - 3-15 pairings
Delayed/ forward conditioning
Backward conditioning
Trace conditioning
Delayed/ forward conditioning –> Bell before food
Backward conditioning - food before bell (not useful in animals but used in adverts)
Trace conditioning - CS presented and removed before UCS - depends on memory (under 0.5ms)
Higher-order conditioning
already conditioned stimulus CS1 as UCS for the next
level of conditioning
animals limit is 4th order
stimulus generalisation
discrimination
extinction + spontaenous recovery
stimulus generalisation –> albert afriad of all fluffy white not just rats
discrimination –> e.g. a child may be afraid of dogs but not all four-legged animals
extinction - reduction/disappearance of a learned response when the UCS – CS pairing is not available anymore. + spontaenous recovery = regaining it
Counter conditioning
Counter conditioning - previously conditioned response replced by new response eg aversion therapy
Positive reinforced
Negative reinforcer
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
Positive Reinforcer –> Food for pressing a lever (given) / star chart
Negative Reinforcer –> Ceasing of electric shock on pressing a lever (taken away) or compulsions in OCD
Positive Punishment –> Points on your driving license for speeding (given)
Negative Punishment –> A monetary fine from a parking ticket (taken away)
Primary Reinforcer –> Stimulus affecting biological needs (such as food)
Secondary Reinforcer –> Stimulus reinforcing behaviour associated with primary reinforcers
(money, praise)
Premack’s principle (a.k.a. Grandma’s rule):
avoidance learning -
premacks- high-frequency behaviour (eating dessert) can be used to reinforce low frequency behaviour (eating greens) e.g. “eat your greens and you can have dessert
people are more likely to do something they don’t like if they can do something they enjoy afterward:
avoidance - organism learns to avoid certain responses eg escape conditioning agoraphobia - panic avoided by never leaving house
operant:
aversive conditioning
covert reinforcement
covert sensitzation
flooding
Shaping
operant = reward and punishment
aversive - punishment to reduce frequency eg disulfiram and alcohol
covert reinforcement- imagining pleasant event eg imagining Mrcp psych graduation to motivate mcqs
covert sensitazation- imagine inpleasant
flooding: eg stand top burj khalifa to overcome fear heights +( implosion when its only imagined )
shaping- reward each time behaviour is closer to desired eg dog jump through hoop
chaining
incubation
stimulus preparedness
learned helplessness
reciprocol inhibition
cueing
chaining- reinforcing a series of related behaviours
incubation - emotional response increases in strength if brief but repeated exposure
stimulus preparedness (seligman) evolutionary hard wired
learned helplessness (Seligman) - when escape seems impossible an animal stops making attempts to escape
reciprocol inhibition (Wolpe) - If stimulus with desired response and stimulus with the undesired
response are presented together repeatedly, then the incompatibility leads to a reduction in frequency of
the undesired response eg dog bark at friend- hug samw time, less dog bark
cueing - eg fingers on lips to reduce chatter
+fading when its unlearned
banduras social learning theory
cognition in learning
bobo doll
learn simply by observing
cognition in learning
1. attention, visual imagine encoded, retain information, motor copy and then motivation to act
bobo doll- children watching a model show aggresion to doll learnig to display aggression without any reinforcement
cognitive learning
insight learning
cognitive learning (Tollman) reinforcement might be neccessary
insight (Kohler)- purely congitive and not based on stimulus response
Gagnes learning hierachy
Stages Gagne’s learning hierarchy
1 Classical conditioning (signal learning)
2 Operant conditioning
3 Chaining
4 Verbal association
5 Discrimination learning
6 Concept learning
7 Rule learning
8 Problem solving
Figure ground differentiation
contour, size, orientation and symmetry
cocktail party phenomemnon is how we manage auditory figure ground
dichotoc listening tests = differentiate L and R whisper in ears
Gestalt:
visual cliff
perceptual constancy
Autokinesis
global processing occurs before local processing eg incomplete closed figures percieved as fully closed
visual cliff- thick glass test shows children 6months plus wont venture on deep side so when they percieve depth
perceptual constancy - door looks same from any angle or light
Autokinesis- if light is shown from a small, dim fixed light source for a long time in dark room = appear as tho light source is moving = explains UFO sightings and can also affect pilots.
phi phenomenon
phi phenomenon- (PHI lip books) Wertheimer - false perception of motion is produced by a succession of still images shown with fixed time interval rapidly
theories of perception
bottom up
top down -
perceptual set
bottom up- perception is data driven optic array thats pieced together
top down- using information already known from higher cortical areas hence why illusins of lines >–< vs <–> muller and lyer
perceptual set= readiness to percieve affected by motivation eg ufos seen by people wanting to
Illusions and hallucinations
Illusion is defined as any perceptual situation in which a physical object is perceived but appears different
from what it really is e.g. a white wall appears yellow if a yellow light is shone on it
A hallucination is an experience in which an object (e.g. sound or light) is perceived in the absence of any
corresponding object in the real world. A hallucination is often indistinguishable from genuine perception.
Innate visual processes
LEarnt visual processes
acuity achieved?
innate- visual scanning, tracking, fixating, figure-ground
discrimination are present from birth
learnt- size constancy, shape constancy,
depth perception, shape discrimination
6 months 6:6 acuity achieved
Broadbent’s early selection filter theory:
+ added later..
Triesmans attenuation theory
Deutsch-Norman late selection filter model: aka …
Ability to process information is capacity limited. temporary buffer reiceves all information and passes to selective filter.
(+ later added pigeon holing- similar to filtering but selection is based on categorisation)
Triesmans attenuation theory - relevance of message matters
Deutsch-Norman late selection filter model: This model rejects Broadbent and suggests that filtering occurs only later, after all inputs are analysed at a higher level / called the pertinence model.
Studies of attention in schizophrenia
Underlying attentional abnormality for those with a genetic predisposition for psychosis.
- overall reaction time is much slower in patients with schizophrenia + their relatives
- sustained attention, distraction, verbal memory and controlled
processing are also affected.
3 types of memory forms
sensory- no processing involved
short term - 7+/- 2 items miller. maintaince rehersal can increase.
Uses acoustic encoding. needs elaborative encoding to become LTM
long term - semantic encoding. unlimited capacity and duration.
Baddley and hitch - working memory model
retrieval modes
phonological loop + visuospatial sketch pad
retrieval modes
- recognition
- recall
- reintegration /reconstruction
- Ribots gradient
- encoding specificty principle
ribots gradient- recent memories more vulneravle to brain damage (after damage to hippocampal memory system = organic amnesia - related to dependenace oof retrieval on hippocampal sytem but LT mems are independent of hyppocampal )
encoding spec- The more similar the retrieval situation is to the encoding
situation, the better retrieval.
Amnesia
anterorgrade
retrograde
psychogenic amnesia
Fuge
Anterograde Amnesia: The loss of the ability to form or
retain new episodic memories AAfter an injury/lesion/event
Retrograde - The loss of episodic memories that were stored before brain damage had occurred (in the past = retro)
psychogenic amnesia = no brain injury but emotionally disturbing event
Fuge - a sudden loss of all autobiographical
memories, knowledge of self and personal identity.
Memory tests to learn..
Rey-Osterrieth complex
Wechsler memory tests
Rey-Osterrieth complex - Here the subject is first asked to copy a complex geometric figure and then to draw from memory after an interval of 30 minutes
Wechsler memory tests: read a short story containing 25 elements and recalled 30 mins later
Brain imaging memory
- Areas STM?
- The phonological STM system?
- The visuospatial STM system
- LTM includes?
- The brain areas mediating performances in STM are principally = pre-frontal lobes
- The phonological STM system is mediated by the left hemisphere regions of Broca’s’ area and
prefrontal cortex. - The visuospatial STM system is mediated by the parietal and prefrontal areas of the right hemisphere.
- The brain areas responsible for LTM includes the regions of the limbic system especially the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex of the medial temporal lobe
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Behavioural economics
Prospect theory
Cognitive distortions
Counting
Neuro-linguistic programming
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis - grammar of mother tongue affects how see world
Behavioural economics- better believe events described more vivid
Prospect theory- based on how framed
Cognitive distortions- internal dialogue affects cognitive distoritons
Counting- some languages have no number above 10
Neuro-linguistic programming- language pattern affect behaviour
deductive reasoning
inductive reasoning
problem solving
algorithmic
heuristic
deductive reasoning –> theory first, observe next
inductive reasoning –> observe then theory
algorithmic - step by step
heuristic- rule of thumb
Personality
dispositional
situationalism
nomothetic
idiographic
dispositional - constant
situationalism- influenced
nomothetic- shared and comparable
idiographic - unique to person
Personality traits
Allport-
Cattell
Eysenck
cloninger-
Rotter-
Allport- trait labels - 3 types cardinal, central and secondary
Cattell- surface wand source traits
Eysenck- 3d traits, neuroticism, psychoticism, extraverson
cloninger- 4d temperament novelty seeking, harm-avoidance, reward-dependence, persistence + 3 character dimensions- self directedness, cooperativeness and self trancendence.
Rotter- locus of control single trait theory
5 traits
kellys personal construct
- mccrae + costa
1. openness
2. conscientiousness
3. extraversion
4. agreeable
5. neuroticism
neo decreases with age AC increases with age
- personality only deciphered when observing interpersonal relationships repertory grid
sheldon and kretschmer
Friedman and rosenman
Rorschach test
thematic apperception test
Jung
sheldon and kretschmer both used body type to describe personality (sheldon long and skinny)
Friedman and rosenman introduced Type A / Type B personality
Rorschach test- 10 ink blots - free association and inquiry socred using exners
Thematic Apperception Test (Murray) TAT has 20-30 pictures and one blank card
Jung word association test
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
Q sort
International personality disorder examinaiton
MMPI - 10 scales used, developed by hathaway and mckinley
Q sort- sorting cards with selfdescriptive statements
IPDE- assessment of personality disorders (for those > 5
years age)
MAslows hierachy of needs
Drive-reduction theory
yerkes-dodson law-
self actualisation
self-esteem
belonging
safety
physiological
Hull- homeostasis - needs are responded by creating a psychological state called drive. primary drives biological and secondary are psychological
U shaped curve stress but affected by task difficulty
Need for achievement (nAch) - measured
?caused by
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
- eg. parents who encourage independence, praise, intrapersonal strength, desirability, goal setting
Ekman emotions
James-Lange
Cannon band theory
Schachter-singer labelling
Ekman emotions- suprise, fear, sadness, anger, happiness, disgust
James-Lange - perception of stimulus leads to bodily changes. increase in heart rate caused by sadness if greater than happiness
Cannon band theory - thalamus coordinates signals to coretex causing conscious experience and simultaneously to hypothalamus causing physiological changes.
Schachter-singer labelling- stimulus- physiological and conscious –> labelled +ve or -ve - called jukebox theory - i no label found, assumed bad.
eustress
distress
4 categorioes
stress vulnerability model
gene link
eustress = positive small amount improves motivation
distress = large negative amounts
- Crises/catastrophes
- major life events
- microstress daily hassles
- ambient eg traffic
Stress Vulnerability model (Zubin and Spring, 1977)
+ capsi et al - 5HT-T 1 or 2 copies of this more depressive syx in relation to life events
Coping process
- lazarus 19999
- lazarus 1999
- think BEFORE feel
cognitive mediation model
Three stages:
Primary appraisal Evaluation of stressor
Secondary appraisal Evaluation of resources and options to manage the stressful situation
Coping stage Choose and use strategy to cope with stressor
theory of consciousness
- Topographical model of the mind
3 systems
The conscious system
- Receives and process information from the outside world, contents communicated via speech and behaviour.
-Attention cathexis refers to the investment of psychic energy on a particular idea or feeling to process it consciously. Cathexis is ‘stable’ in the conscious mind. Operates secondary process thinking mainly.
The unconscious system:
- Contains the contents of censored or repressed wishes, Characterized by primary-process thinking, and is governed by the pleasure principle.
- Shift of cathexis happens very often and quickly
- Evident via parapraxes (Freudian slips) and dreams.
The preconscious system:
- As and when needed service, Interfaces with both unconscious and conscious
- contents of unconscious become conscious by ‘squeezing’ through the preconscious
- Maintains the ‘repressive barrier’ to censor unacceptable wishes and desires (not the repressed contents).
biorhythems driven by..
circadian
ultradian
infradian
suprachiasmatic nucleus
.. zeitgebers - time givers.
circadian- 24 hourly
ultradian- those with cycles lasting less than a day
infradian- more than a day + circannual eg hibernation
suprachiasmatic nucleus - internal pacemaker in anterior hypothalamus
SLEEP DEPRIVATION
sleep-deprivation psychosis.
Hat phenomenon
- Delusional ideations, paranoia, loss of sense of identity and difficulty in social interaction including disorganized speech
hypnosis
suggestion
focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness.
communication directed at the conscious mind whereas others believe it is
communication with the unconscious
2 factor theory of intelligence
Sternbergs triarchic theory
Flynn effect
flynn paradox
2 factor theory =Singer-Schachter theory, which requires both physiological arousal and a cognitive label. |FEEL THEN ADD COGNITIVE LABEL
triarchic theory
- analytic, creative and practical abilities
flynn- IQ measurements improve each generation mostly on fluid intelligence problem solving
- non verbal IQ improved faster than verbal and largest on abstract tests
paradoxes- identical twin, mental retardation, interation and factor.
common tests for IQ
SPEARMANS concept of general intelligence (g) derived from?
stanford-binet- first formal IQ test introduced before ww
Wechsler - adult, children and preschool versions
from factor analysius
GESTALT
SOME PSYCHIATRISTS CAN FRIGHTEN SMALL CHILDREN
SIMILARITY
PROXIMITY
CLOSURE
COMMON FATE
SYMMETRY
CONTINUITY
PSYCHOLOGISTS -
Kohler, Plank and wertheimer
