HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Flashcards
Piaget’s theory of development
- prototype stage theory focused on epistemology (the study of the development of knowledge or intelligence).
- According to Piaget, development…
- Occurs in hierarchical stages
- Each stage is qualitatively different ( not just quantitatively)
- The stages consist of invariant functions and all children undergo these sequentially
developmental milestones
4-6 weeks
6-8 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
6 weeks - smiles
6-8 weeks cooing
3 months holds head up, localises sound, babbles
6 m- hand to hand transfer - dada. double sylable sounds
9 m- crawls, sits unsupported, STRANGER ANXIETY and object permanence
1 year
18 month
2 years
3 years
4 years
5
6
1 yr- stands alone, separation anxiety , 1 or 2 words
18m - walks alone, intelligable words up to 40, tower of 3 (1X3)
2 yrs- tower of 6 (2X3), parralel play, dry by day
3 years- upstairs 1 foot per step , draws circle, tower 9 cubes (3X3)
4 years, can skip and copy a cross, toilet trained mostly
5 - can hop and draw a triangle, dress and undress alone
6- diamond, can count on fingers, nearly adult like speech
Temperament theory
(Thomas & Chess,
Kagan)
Temperaments are inherent biologically based traits varying from
difficult to easy (or inhibited to uninhibited).
Temperament elicits
environmental response that perpetuates a pattern of behaviour
Organismic stage theory (Piaget)
Maturational Growth theory (Gesell)
Organismic stage theory (Piaget)
* Development occurs in stages with transition occurring as a result of interaction of the child with its environment (child as a scientist)
Maturational Growth theory (Gesell)
* Maturation of the nervous system as the principal driver of the various aspects of human behaviour
Attachment theory
(Bowlby)
Social learning theory
(Bandura)
Attachment theory (Bowlby)
* Innate tendency to seek relationships influence patterns of behaviours in later life.
Social learning theory (Bandura)
* Observational learning in childhood influences later behaviour
Psychosexual stage theory (Freud)
Psychosocial stage theory (Erikson)
Psychosexual stage theory (Freud)
- Stage-specific behaviours are driven by inner conflicts and resulting anxiety signals.
Successful resolution of conflicts aid in progressive maturation.
Psychosocial stage theory (Erikson)
* Psychosocial developmental stages are characterized by conflicts, but the successful resolution is not mandatory for further development
Collaborative learning theory
(Vygotsky)
Collaborative learning theory (Vygotsky)
Development is not entirely private; child acts as an apprentice in social surroundings rather than a scientist.
Parents/ teachers scaffold - familiarity for the child to develop own expertise (collaborative learning).
Zone of proximal development = functions that are not yet fully achieved but are in the process ‘pipeline’ whose development is aided by scaffolding
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: Flashcards
- Oral Stage (0 to 1 ½ years)
Focus: Sucking and oral erotogenic zone
Oral erotism (sucking, licking)
Oral sadism (biting, chewing)
Key Development: Ego formation
Anal Stage (1 ½ to 3 years)
toilet training and defecating
Phallic/Oedipal Stage (3 to 5 years)
focus: Genitals and masturbation-like activity
Oedipus Complex (boys): Desire for opposite-sex parent, fear of retaliation (castration anxiety)
Electra Complex (girls): Penis envy, desire for father’s love, and displacement of mother
Latency Stage (5 years to puberty)
Focus: Socialization and peer interactions
Sexual energy sublimated into school work, hobbies, and friendships
Genital Stage (Puberty onwards)
Focus: Biological maturation and genital sexuality
Mature genital sexuality develops
3 distinct types of stress response in young children
positive
tolerable
toxic
Positive stress - brief, mild response moderated by the availability of a caring
and responsive adult. e.g. getting an immunization, anxiety associated with the first day at a nursery. If buffered adequately - growth-promoting opportunities
Tolerable stress- exposure to non-normative experiences e.g. death of a family member, a serious illness or injury. When buffered well the risk of harm greatly reduced.
Toxic stress - strong, frequent, or prolonged activation of stress
response in the absence of the buffering protection from supportive adults. e.g., child abuse or neglect, parental substance abuse, and maternal depression. disrupts developing brain circuitry during sensitive developmental periods forming the precursors of later physical and mental illness
bowlbys attachment ages
pre-attachment birth- 8-/12 weeks babies orient to mothers
indiscriminate- attachment in making but strangers can handle
Clear cut attachment - 6 -24 months : Preferential attachment, separation anxiety, object permanence, stranger anxiety
after 25 months- mother figure independent
harlows experiemtns
Contact comfort is as important as food for mother-infant bonding.
Method: Rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers and given surrogate mothers (wire or cloth).
Monkeys preferred the cloth-covered surrogate for comfort, even without a feeding nipple.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: Flashcards
- Experiment Overview
procedure
classification
Infant observed in the presence/absence of mother and stranger in 7 episodes (separation & reunion).
Infant behaviour classified as Type A, B, or C, correlating with mother’s responsiveness and stimulation
Type A: Anxious Avoidant (15%)
behaviour
distress-
stranger-
common in-
Behaviour: Indifferent to mother’s departure/return; plays without seeking mother.
Distress: Distressed when alone, but not when mother leaves.
Stranger: Easily comforted by stranger.
Common in: Western cultures, perpetrators of bullying.
- Type B: Secure (70%)
Behaviour?
Distress?
Stranger?
key trait?
Behaviour: Plays independently, seeks mother for comfort after separation.
Distress: Distressed when mother leaves, calmed by her return.
Stranger: Not comforted by stranger.
Key trait: Secure base effect, balanced attachment
Type C: Anxious Resistant (15%)
Behaviour
Distress
Stranger
Common in:
Behavior: Cries frequently, unable to use mother as secure base.
Distress: High distress when mother leaves, ambivalent upon return.
Stranger: Actively resists stranger’s comfort.
Common in: Japanese, Israeli cultures, victims of bullying.
Type D: Disorganised (Rare)
Behaviour
Cause
Long term
Behavior: Confused, dazed, may be frightened of mother.
Cause: Seen in maltreated or maternally deprived children.
Long-term: May indicate later personality or dissociative issues
Margaret Mahler described the development of a sense of identity in young children, independent of their mothers = separation-individuation theory
* Normal autism
* Symbiosis
* Separation
* approachment
* object
- Normal autism 0-2months- sleeping
- Symbiosis - 2-5m inner and outer world studied
- Separation - differentiation 5-10m, practicising 10-18m, interest in environment
- approchment- 18-24 - explores but requires reassurance on return
- object 2-5yrs under understand mother will not be lost if temporarily away
Rutter
Depirvation and privation
Deprivation
Definition: Attachment formed but temporarily lost.
Short-Term: Protest, despair, detachment phases (similar to grief).
Age: More common in 8 months to 3 years old.
Gender: Boys show more deprivation features than girls.
Triggered By: Separation, aggressive caregiving (e.g., physical abuse).
Prolonged Deprivation: Separation anxiety, clinginess, psychosomatic complaint
Privation
Definition: Non-formation of attachment, very rare.
Consequences: ‘Affectionless psychopathy’, developmental retardation.
Behaviour: Attention-seeking, lack of guilt, antisocial behaviour, indiscriminate attachment.
Reversibility: Partially reversible with intervention.
Melanie Klein aka Object relation theory
Kleinian theory:
- Play interpretation was the major technique employed
- Maintained that oedipal development occurred earlier than what Freud envisaged
An infant possessed instinctual knowledge of the body.
- Weaning is symbolically equivalent to castration
- Klein’s stages are not age specific – but the PSP and DP are said to occur between 0-3 months (very early)
- Kleinian defences – SIPDOG i.e.
Splitting, introjection, projective identification, Denial,
omnipotence and grandiosity
Lornz - imprinting
Innate releasing mechanism
Fixed action pattern
goslings imprinted on lorenz and refused to follow mother goose
Innate releasing mechanism (IRM) refers to the sensory mechanism selectively responsive to a specific external stimulus and responsible for triggering the stereotyped motor response.
(FAP) is an inherent pattern of behaviour initiated by specific stimuli. It consists of species-specific, stereotyped movements e.g. following behaviour in goslings.
Winnicott’s Concepts:
transitional zone
transitional object
good enough mother
false sense
Transitional Zone: Psychological development occurs between reality and fantasy; play is key in child development.
Transitional Object: Objects (e.g., soft toy, towel) help children transition from fantasy to reality, offering comfort and control.
Good Enough Mother: A mother doesn’t need to be perfect, just “good enough” to provide a nurturing environment for growth.
False Self: Parental control and impositions can lead to the development of a false self, distinct from the real self.
Maccoby and Martin described four parenting styles
- responsive vs unresponsive
- demanding vs undemanding
Cambridge study of Delinquent development by Farrington et al,
most important childhood predictors (during age 8-10) of delinquency were
- antisocial child behaviour
- impulsivity
- low intelligence
-low attainment - family criminality
- poverty and poor parent child rearing behaviour
institutional care
intrafamilial abuse
institutional care- Ex-Institutional Syndrome: Children adopted after institutional care may have attachment issues, struggle with peer relationships, and prefer adult support.
intrafamilial abuse- Sexual Abuse Effects: Anxiety, sexualized behavior, borderline personality disorder, substance misuse, dissociation, and depression.
Adoption
day care
Early Adoption: Better outcomes for children adopted before 4-5 years.
Late Adoption: More vulnerable to behavioral problems, but not guaranteed to cause issues.
Adopted Status: Children often aware between 2-4 years; parental disclosure reduces trauma.
Day Care
Risk: Over 20 hours a week before 1 year old can increase insecure attachment.
No Impact: If daycare is less frequent or started later.
Bereavement vs Divorce
gender difference
Parental Death: Lesser impact than parental conflict and separation.
Symptoms of Bereavement: Temper tantrums, sadness, irritability, sleep disturbances.
Additional Effects of Divorce
Physical Effects: Asthma, injuries, headaches, speech defects.
Suicide Risk: Higher among children of divorced parents.
Adjustment Problems: 25% of teens face adjustment issues.
Gender and Divorce Impact
Boys: More affected than girls; show physical aggression.
Divorce Risk: Children of divorced parents are more likely to divorce themselves.
Age-Specific Reactions to Divorce
recovery
negative outcomes
Infants: Changes in eating, sleeping, and bowel patterns; anxious responses.
3-6 years: Assume responsibility for parental separation.
7-12 years: Decline in school performance.
Adolescents: Feel hurt, angry, critical, spend more time away from home.
recovery- usually 3-5 years
Negative Outcomes: Poor academic achievement, low self-esteem, increased antisocial behavior, depression.
Authoritative parenting:
Authoritarian parenting:
Indulgent parenting:
Neglectful parenting:
- Authoritative parenting: parents are demanding but responsive; fits propagative
parenting and concerted cultivation - Authoritarian parenting: restrictive and punishment heavy; follow rules without
explanation. High demand and low responsiveness. - Indulgent parenting: Low demand, high response, the parents are permissible and lenient with few behavioural expectations placed on the child – parents try to be friends with a child. As adults, those with indulgent parents pay less attention to avoiding behaviours
which cause aggression in others. - Neglectful parenting: low demand, low response. These parents are detached and dismissive, not involved in the child’s life. Also dismiss child’s emotions and opinions
New York Longitudinal Study
- key study on childhood temperament
- conducted by Thomas & Chess.
3 styles identified
goodness of fit
thirty years (initially 6 years) longitudinal study of 138 children, observing
childhood temperaments.
It employed parental interviews
- easy 40%
- difficult - 10%
- to slow to warm up 15%
- ungrouped - 35%
goodness of fit - reciprocol to mother environment and temperament
Erikson’s stages psychosocial developmental stages.
Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months - 3 years): Children gain control over activities; success builds self-esteem, failure leads to shame.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - 12 years): Learning new skills and social competence; failure results in feelings of inadequacy.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 - 18 years): Teens explore independence and form personal identity; failure leads to confusion.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood): Develops love and intimate relationships; lack of this leads to isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood): Seek productivity and contribution through career/family; failure leads to stagnation.
Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood): Reflect on life achievements and prepare for end of life; failure leads to despair.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages:
Schema
Adaptation
Equilibrilation
Stages
Schema: Mental frameworks based on past experiences to understand new information (e.g., bike riding, math).
Adaptation: Fitting schemas to the environment through assimilation (incorporating new info into existing schemas) or accommodation (restructuring schemas).
Equilibration: Achieved when adaptation leads to effective mental structures, resolving cognitive disequilibrium.
Stages:
Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Reflexes, object permanence, and goal-directed actions develop. (SPIRO)
Preoperational (2-7 years): Early symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and intuitive reasoning. (FAT PILES)
Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking, conservation, and perspective-taking emerge.
Formal Operational (11+ years): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical-deductive thinking, and advanced logic.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
pre linguistic
one word stage
two word stage
stage 2
Stages of Language Development:
Pre-linguistic Stage (0-12 months):
Crying: Primary form of communication.
Speech Perception: Babies can distinguish phonemes.
Cooing: Starts around 6 weeks.
Babbling: Begins around 6 months; repetitive sounds, even in deaf babies (stops at 9-10 months).
Phonemic Expansion: Production of non-native sounds.
One-word Stage (12-18 months):
First Words: Often self-invented and consistent in meaning.
Context-bound Words: Words used in specific situations (e.g., “teddy” for “throw up”).
Holophrases: One word substitutes for sentences.
Word Categories: Nominals, action words, function words, modifiers, social functions.
Two-word Stage / Stage 1 Grammar (18-30 months):
Telegraphic Speech: Short, meaningful phrases without connecting words (e.g., “want cookie”).
Motherese: Simplified, high-pitched language used by adults when speaking to infants.
Object Permanence: Words start to represent objects and concepts.
Stage 2 Grammar (>30 months):
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU): Increase in sentence complexity as grammar develops.
Noam chomsky theory
children born with innate language acquisition device
Esienberg Moral development theories
Focus: Prosocial reasoning and altruism.
Morality develops through concern for others’ needs, moving from self-focused to empathy-based reasoning.
Hedonistic (preschool): Self-interest.
Needs-based (early childhood): Recognizes others’ needs.
Approval-based (middle childhood): Seeks social approval.
Empathy-based (adolescence): Advanced empathy and concern for others.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory
Moral reasoning progresses through 3 levels: Pre-conventional (consequences), Conventional (social rules), and Post-conventional (universal ethical principles).
Pre-conventional: Punishment/obedience, reward orientation.
Conventional: Concordance orientation (good boy/good girl), social order orientation.
Post-conventional: Social contract, universal ethical orientation.
Criticism: Androcentric and Eurocentric bias, focuses on reasoning rather than actual behaviour.
Piaget’s Moral Development Theory
Children develop from heteronomous morality (rules are fixed and must be followed) to autonomous morality (rules can be negotiated and based on fairness).
5-9 years: Moral realism, external responsibility, and imminent justice.
10+ years: Moral relativism, internal responsibility, and no imminent justice
Freud’s Moral Development Theory
Boys develop morality through the Oedipus complex, where castration anxiety leads to identification with the father and internalization of the superego. In girls, the Electra complex and penis envy lead to identification with the mother and a weaker superego.
Social Learning Theory of Gender Development
society treats boys and girls differently (e.g., pink dresses for girls, toys for boys).
Father’s Role: Fathers are more gendered in their treatment than mothers, reinforcing sex-typed behaviours.
Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Identity
Basic Gender Identity (around 3 years): Understanding of being male or female.
Gender Stability (4-5 years): Recognition that gender is consistent over time.
Gender Constancy (6-7 years): Understanding that gender remains the same even with physical changes.
Gender Schema Theory
Sexual Orientation Development
Gender Schema Theory- Gender identity drives children to adopt sex-typed behaviours.
Children observe and learn gender roles in society, internalizing the cultural gender schema as a standard for behaviour.
Sexual Orientation Development - Sexual drive increases in adolescence due to raised androgen levels. Sexual orientation is explored during adolescence, with debate over biological vs. childhood shaping influences on sexual orientation
Marcia’s theory on adolescence:
A mature self-identity is possible only if an individual
experiences several crises, finally arriving at a stage of commitment.
Genetic Influences on Development
Gene-Environment Interaction: Genotype and environment interact to shape development (e.g., phenylketonuria).
Canalization: Some traits (e.g., language) are genetically determined, while others (e.g., reading) are more influenced by the environment.
Types of G-E Interaction: Passive, evocative, and active interactions shape a child’s development, influencing behaviors and choices over time.
Pregnancy & Childbirth Stress
Bereavement and Grief Stages
Lindemann’s Stages: Initial shock, sadness, anger, and resolution after a loss.
Parkes’ 5 Stages: Alarm, numbness, pining, depression, and reorganization (recovery).
Grief Process: Mourning influenced by cultural norms, resolving grief over time.
Relationship Theories
Homogamous Mate Selection: People often pair with others from similar cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Equity Theory: Relationships are based on a cost-benefit analysis, considering both partners’ contributions.
Reinforcement Theory: Partners are chosen for the rewards and reinforcement they provide, enhancing attraction.
Midlife Transition & Crisis
Midlife Transition:
Empty Nest Distress:
Downshifting:
Midlife Transition & Crisis
Midlife Transition: Occurs around age 40-45, often linked to realizing mortality, unmet goals, or changes like menopause or children leaving home.
Empty Nest Distress: Feelings of loneliness when children leave home.
Downshifting: Choosing a less stressful career for a more fulfilling life
