HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Question 1

heritability facts

Answer 1

Heritability of IQ varies with age:

Heritability of IQ is affected by demographics: Scarr et al - white people more inherited due to social status

Genetic influences are likely to be variable:

Effect of the shared environment: genetic influences are often inferred from the observation that closer biological relatives (e.g. identical twins) are more similar in their intelligence than less closely related pairs (non-twin siblings). B

Question 2

Piaget’s theory of development
* prototype stage theory focused on epistemology (the study of the development of knowledge or
intelligence).
* According to Piaget, development…

Answer 2

1. Occurs in hierarchical stages
2. Each stage is qualitatively different ( not just quantitatively)
3. The stages consist of invariant functions and all children undergo these sequentially

Question 3

developmental milestones
4-6 weeks
6-8 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months

Answer 3

6 weeks - smiles
6-8 weeks cooing
3 months holds head up, localises sound, babbles
6 m- hand to hand transfer - dada. double sylable sounds
9 m- crawls, sits unsupported, STRANGER ANXIETY and object permanence

Question 4

1 year
18 months
2 years
3 years
4 years

Answer 4

1 yr- stands alone, separation anxiety , 1 or 2 words

18m - walks alone, intelligable words up to 40, tower of 3 (1X3)

2 yrs- tower of 6 (2X3), parralel play, dry by day

3 years- upstairs 1 foot per step , draws circle, tower 9 cubes (3X3)

4 years, can skip and copy a cross, toilet trained mostly

5 - can hop and draw a triangle, dress and undress alone

6- diamond, can count on fingers, nearly adult like speech

Question 5

Temperament theory
(Thomas & Chess,
Kagan)

Answer 5

Temperaments are inherent biologically based traits varying from
difficult to easy (or inhibited to uninhibited). Temperament elicits
environmental response that perpetuates a pattern of behaviour

Question 6

Organismic stage
theory (Piaget)

Maturational Growth
theory (Gesell)

Answer 6

Organismic stage theory (Piaget)
* Development occurs in stages with transition occurring as a result of
interaction of the child with its environment (child as a scientist)

Maturational Growth theory (Gesell)
* Maturation of the nervous system as the principal driver of the various
aspects of human behaviour

Question 7

Attachment theory
(Bowlby)

Social learning theory
(Bandura)

Answer 7

Attachment theory (Bowlby)
* Innate tendency to seek relationships influence patterns of behaviours in later life.

Social learning theory (Bandura)
* Observational learning in childhood influences later behaviour

Question 8

Psychosexual stage
theory (Freud)

Psychosocial stage
theory (Erikson)

Answer 8

Psychosexual stage theory (Freud)

• Stage-specific behaviours are driven by inner conflicts and resulting anxiety signals. Successful resolution of conflicts aid in progressive maturation.

Psychosocial stage theory (Erikson)
* Psychosocial developmental stages are characterized by conflicts, but the
successful resolution is not mandatory for further development

Question 9

Collaborative
learning theory
(Vygotsky)

Answer 9

Collaborative learning theory (Vygotsky)

Development is not entirely private; child acts as an apprentice in social
surroundings rather than a scientist.

Parents/ teachers scaffold - familiarity for the child to develop own expertise (collaborative learning).
Zone of proximal development = functions that are not yet fully achieved but are in the process ‘pipeline’ whose development is aided by scaffolding

Question 10

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: Flashcards

1. Oral Stage (0 to 1 ½ years)

Answer 10

Focus: Sucking and oral erotogenic zone
Early: Oral erotism (sucking, licking)
Later: Oral sadism (biting, chewing)
Key Development: Ego formation

Question 11

Anal Stage (1 ½ to 3 years)

Answer 11

Focus: Sucking and oral erotogenic zone
Early: Oral erotism (sucking, licking)
Later: Oral sadism (biting, chewing)
Key Development: Ego formation

Question 12

Phallic/Oedipal Stage (3 to 5 years)

Answer 12

focus: Genitals and masturbation-like activity
Oedipus Complex (boys): Desire for opposite-sex parent, fear of retaliation (castration anxiety)
Electra Complex (girls): Penis envy, desire for father’s love, and displacement of mother

Question 13

Latency Stage (5 years to puberty)

Answer 13

Focus: Socialization and peer interactions
Sexual energy sublimated into school work, hobbies, and friendships

Question 14

Genital Stage (Puberty onwards)

Answer 14

Focus: Biological maturation and genital sexuality
Mature genital sexuality develops

Question 15

3 distinct types of stress response in young children
positive
tolerable
toxic

Answer 15

Positive stress - brief, mild response moderated by the availability of a caring
and responsive adult. e.g. getting an immunization, anxiety associated with the first day at a nursery. If buffered adequately - growth-promoting opportunities

Tolerable stress- exposure to non-normative experiences e.g. death of a family member, a serious illness or injury. When buffered well the risk of harm greatly reduced.

Toxic stress - strong, frequent, or prolonged activation of stress
response in the absence of the buffering protection from supportive adults. e.g., child abuse or neglect, parental substance abuse, and maternal depression. disrupts
the developing brain circuitry during sensitive developmental periods forming the precursors of later physical and mental illness

Question 16

bowlbys attachment ages

Answer 16

pre-attachment birth- 8-/12 weeks babies orient to mothers

indiscriminate- attachment in making but strangers can handle

Clear cut attachment - 6 -24 months : Preferential attachment, separation anxiety, object permanence, stranger anxiety

after 25 months- mother figure independent

Question 17

harlows experiemtns

Answer 17

Key Finding: Contact comfort is as important as food for mother-infant bonding.
Method: Rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers and given surrogate mothers (wire or cloth).
Results: Monkeys preferred the cloth-covered surrogate for comfort, even without a feeding nipple.
Conclusion: Infants prioritize emotional comfort over nourishment in early bonding.

Question 18

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: Flashcards

1. Experiment Overview
   procedure
   classification

Answer 18

Procedure: Infant observed in the presence/absence of mother and stranger in 7 episodes (separation & reunion).
Classification: Infant behavior classified as Type A, B, or C, correlating with mother’s responsiveness and stimulation

Question 19

Type A: Anxious Avoidant (15%)
behaviour
distress-
stranger-
common in-

Answer 19

Behavior: Indifferent to mother’s departure/return; plays without seeking mother.
Distress: Distressed when alone, but not when mother leaves.
Stranger: Easily comforted by stranger.
Common in: Western cultures, perpetrators of bullying.

Question 20

3. Type B: Secure (70%)

Behaviour?
Distress?
Stranger?
key trait?

Answer 20

Behavior: Plays independently, seeks mother for comfort after separation.
Distress: Distressed when mother leaves, calmed by her return.
Stranger: Not comforted by stranger.
Key trait: Secure base effect, balanced attachment

Question 21

Type C: Anxious Resistant (15%)
Behaviour
Distress
Stranger
Common in:

Answer 21

Behavior: Cries frequently, unable to use mother as secure base.
Distress: High distress when mother leaves, ambivalent upon return.
Stranger: Actively resists stranger’s comfort.
Common in: Japanese, Israeli cultures, victims of bullying.

Question 22

Type D: Disorganised (Rare)
Behaviour
Cause
Long term

Answer 22

Behavior: Confused, dazed, may be frightened of mother.
Cause: Seen in maltreated or maternally deprived children.
Long-term: May indicate later personality or dissociative issues

Question 23

Margaret Mahler described the
development of a sense of identity in young children, independent of their mothers = separation-individuation theory
* Normal autism
* Symbiosis
* Separation
* approachment
* object

Answer 23

• Normal autism 0-2months- sleeping
• Symbiosis - 2-5m inner and outer world studied
• Separation - differentiation 5-10m, practicising 10-18m, interest in environment
• approchment- 18-24 - explores but requires reassurance on return
• object 2-5yrs under understand mother willnot be lost if temporarily away

Question 24

Rutter
Depirvation and privation

Answer 24

Deprivation

Definition: Attachment formed but temporarily lost.
Short-Term: Protest, despair, detachment phases (similar to grief).
Age: More common in 8 months to 3 years old.
Gender: Boys show more deprivation features than girls.
Triggered By: Separation, aggressive caregiving (e.g., physical abuse).
Prolonged Deprivation: Separation anxiety, clinginess, psychosomatic complaint

Privation

Definition: Non-formation of attachment, very rare.
Consequences: ‘Affectionless psychopathy’, developmental retardation.
Behavior: Attention-seeking, lack of guilt, antisocial behavior, indiscriminate attachment.
Reversibility: Partially reversible with intervention.

Question 25

Melanie Klein aka Object relation theory

Answer 25

Kleinian theory:
- Play interpretation was the major technique employed
- Maintained that oedipal development occurred earlier than what Freud envisaged
An infant possessed instinctual knowledge of the body.
- Weaning is symbolically equivalent to castration
- Klein’s stages are not age specific – but the PSP and DP are said to occur between 0-3
months (very early)
- Kleinian defenses – SIPDOG i.e. Splitting, introjection, projective identification, Denial,
omnipotence and grandiosity

Question 26

Lornz - imprinting

Innate releasing mechanism

Fixed action pattern

Answer 26

goslings imprinted on lorenz and refused to follow mother goose

Innate releasing mechanism (IRM) refers to the sensory mechanism selectively responsive to a
specific external stimulus and responsible for triggering the stereotyped motor response.

(FAP) is an inherent pattern of behaviour initiated by specific stimuli. It consists of
species-specific, stereotyped movements e.g. following behaviour in goslings.

Question 27

Winnicott’s Concepts:
transitional zone
transitional object
good enough mother
false sense

Answer 27

Transitional Zone: Psychological development occurs between reality and fantasy; play is key in child development.
Transitional Object: Objects (e.g., soft toy, towel) help children transition from fantasy to reality, offering comfort and control.
Good Enough Mother: A mother doesn’t need to be perfect, just “good enough” to provide a nurturing environment for growth.
False Self: Parental control and impositions can lead to the development of a false self, distinct from the real self.

Question 28

Maccoby and Martin described four parenting styles

Answer 28

• responsive vs unresponsive
• demanding vs undemanding

Question 29

Cambridge study of Delinquent development by Farrington et al,

Answer 29

most important childhood predictors (during age 8-10) of delinquency were
- antisocial child
behaviour
- impulsivity
- low intelligence
-low attainment
- family criminality
- poverty and poor parent child rearing behaviour

Question 30

institutional care

intrafamilial abuse

Answer 30

institutional care- Ex-Institutional Syndrome: Children adopted after institutional care may have attachment issues, struggle with peer relationships, and prefer adult support.

intrafamilial abuse- Sexual Abuse Effects: Anxiety, sexualized behavior, borderline personality disorder, substance misuse, dissociation, and depression.

Question 31

Adoption

day care

Answer 31

Early Adoption: Better outcomes for children adopted before 4-5 years.
Late Adoption: More vulnerable to behavioral problems, but not guaranteed to cause issues.
Adopted Status: Children often aware between 2-4 years; parental disclosure reduces trauma.

Day Care
Risk: Over 20 hours a week before 1 year old can increase insecure attachment.
No Impact: If daycare is less frequent or started later.

Question 32

Bereavement vs Divorce

gender difference

Answer 32

Parental Death: Lesser impact than parental conflict and separation.

Symptoms of Bereavement: Temper tantrums, sadness, irritability, sleep disturbances.

Additional Effects of Divorce

Physical Effects: Asthma, injuries, headaches, speech defects.
Suicide Risk: Higher among children of divorced parents.
Adjustment Problems: 25% of teens face adjustment issues.

Gender and Divorce Impact
Boys: More affected than girls; show physical aggression.
Divorce Risk: Children of divorced parents are more likely to divorce themselves.

Question 33

Age-Specific Reactions to Divorce

recovery
negative outcomes

Answer 33

Infants: Changes in eating, sleeping, and bowel patterns; anxious responses.
3-6 years: Assume responsibility for parental separation.
7-12 years: Decline in school performance.
Adolescents: Feel hurt, angry, critical, spend more time away from home.

recovery- usually 3-5 years

Negative Outcomes: Poor academic achievement, low self-esteem, increased antisocial behavior, depression.

Question 34

Authoritative parenting:

Authoritarian parenting:

 Indulgent parenting:

 Neglectful parenting:

Answer 34

• Authoritative parenting: parents are demanding but responsive; fits propagative
  parenting and concerted cultivation
• Authoritarian parenting: restrictive and punishment heavy; follow rules without
  explanation. High demand and low responsiveness.
• Indulgent parenting: Low demand, high response, the parents are permissible and lenient
  with few behavioural expectations placed on the child – parents try to be friends with a child. As adults, those with indulgent parents pay less attention to avoiding behaviours
  which cause aggression in others.
• Neglectful parenting: low demand, low response. These parents are detached and dismissive, not involved in the child’s life. Also dismiss child’s emotions and opinions

Question 35

New York Longitudinal Study
- key study on childhood temperament
- conducted by Thomas
& Chess.

3 styles identified

goodness of fit

Answer 35

thirty years (initially 6 years) longitudinal study of 138 children, observing
childhood temperaments.
It employed parental interviews

• easy 40%
• difficult - 10%
• to slow to warm up 15%
• ungrouped - 35%

goodness of fit - reciprocol to mother environment and temperament

Question 36

Erikson’s stages psychosocial developmental stages.

Answer 36

Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months - 3 years): Children gain control over activities; success builds self-esteem, failure leads to shame.

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - 12 years): Learning new skills and social competence; failure results in feelings of inadequacy.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 - 18 years): Teens explore independence and form personal identity; failure leads to confusion.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood): Develops love and intimate relationships; lack of this leads to isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood): Seek productivity and contribution through career/family; failure leads to stagnation.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood): Reflect on life achievements and prepare for end of life; failure leads to despair.

Question 37

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages:
Schema
Adaptation
Equilibrilation

Stages

Answer 37

Schema: Mental frameworks based on past experiences to understand new information (e.g., bike riding, math).
Adaptation: Fitting schemas to the environment through assimilation (incorporating new info into existing schemas) or accommodation (restructuring schemas).
Equilibration: Achieved when adaptation leads to effective mental structures, resolving cognitive disequilibrium.
Stages:

Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Reflexes, object permanence, and goal-directed actions develop. (SPIRO)

Preoperational (2-7 years): Early symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and intuitive reasoning. (FAT PILES)

Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking, conservation, and perspective-taking emerge.
Formal Operational (11+ years): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical-deductive thinking, and advanced logic.

Question 38

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
pre linguistic
one word stage
two word stage
stage 2

Answer 38

Stages of Language Development:

Pre-linguistic Stage (0-12 months):
Crying: Primary form of communication.
Speech Perception: Babies can distinguish phonemes.
Cooing: Starts around 6 weeks.
Babbling: Begins around 6 months; repetitive sounds, even in deaf babies (stops at 9-10 months).
Phonemic Expansion: Production of non-native sounds.

One-word Stage (12-18 months):
First Words: Often self-invented and consistent in meaning.
Context-bound Words: Words used in specific situations (e.g., “teddy” for “throw up”).
Holophrases: One word substitutes for sentences.
Word Categories: Nominals, action words, function words, modifiers, social functions.

Two-word Stage / Stage 1 Grammar (18-30 months):
Telegraphic Speech: Short, meaningful phrases without connecting words (e.g., “want cookie”).
Motherese: Simplified, high-pitched language used by adults when speaking to infants.
Object Permanence: Words start to represent objects and concepts.

Stage 2 Grammar (>30 months):
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU): Increase in sentence complexity as grammar develops.

Question 39

Noam chomsky theory

Answer 39

children born with innate language acquisition device

Question 40

Esienberg Moral development theories

Answer 40

Eisenberg’s Moral Development Theory

Focus: Prosocial reasoning and altruism.
Key Idea: Morality develops through concern for others’ needs, moving from self-focused to empathy-based reasoning.
Stages:
Hedonistic (preschool): Self-interest.
Needs-based (early childhood): Recognizes others’ needs.
Approval-based (middle childhood): Seeks social approval.
Empathy-based (adolescence): Advanced empathy and concern for others.
Key Concepts: Prosocial reasoning, altruism, empathy

Question 41

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Answer 41

Focus: Moral reasoning in hypothetical dilemmas.
Key Idea: Moral reasoning progresses through 3 levels: Pre-conventional (consequences), Conventional (social rules), and Post-conventional (universal ethical principles).
Stages:
Pre-conventional: Punishment/obedience, reward orientation.
Conventional: Concordance orientation (good boy/good girl), social order orientation.
Post-conventional: Social contract, universal ethical orientation.
Criticism: Androcentric and Eurocentric bias, focuses on reasoning rather than actual behavior.

Question 42

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory

Answer 42

Focus: Moral reasoning development.
Key Idea: Children develop from heteronomous morality (rules are fixed and must be followed) to autonomous morality (rules can be negotiated and based on fairness).
Stages:
5-9 years: Moral realism, external responsibility, and imminent justice.
10+ years: Moral relativism, internal responsibility, and no imminent justice

Question 43

Freud’s Moral Development Theory

Answer 43

Focus: Development of the superego.
Key Idea: Boys develop morality through the Oedipus complex, where castration anxiety leads to identification with the father and internalization of the superego. In girls, the Electra complex and penis envy lead to identification with the mother and a weaker superego.
Key Concepts: Superego, identification, castration anxiety, penis envy.

Question 44

Social Learning Theory of Gender Development

Answer 44

Key Idea: Gender behavior is learned through societal reinforcement and observational learning.
Mechanism: Children learn gender-specific behaviors because society treats boys and girls differently (e.g., pink dresses for girls, toys for boys).
Father’s Role: Fathers are more gendered in their treatment than mothers, reinforcing sex-typed behaviors.

Question 45

Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Identity

Answer 45

Key Idea: Children actively participate in their gender identity development.
Stages:
Basic Gender Identity (around 3 years): Understanding of being male or female.
Gender Stability (4-5 years): Recognition that gender is consistent over time.
Gender Constancy (6-7 years): Understanding that gender remains the same even with physical changes.
Similarity to Piaget: Gender constancy is akin to cognitive conservation.

Question 46

Gender Schema Theory

Sexual Orientation Development

Answer 46

Gender Schema Theory

Key Idea: Gender identity drives children to adopt sex-typed behaviors.
Mechanism: Children observe and learn gender roles in society, internalizing the cultural gender schema as a standard for behavior.

Sexual Orientation Development

Key Idea: Sexual drive increases in adolescence due to raised androgen levels.
Exploration: Sexual orientation is explored during adolescence, with debate over biological vs. childhood shaping influences on sexual orientation

Question 47

Marcia’s theory on adolescence:

Answer 47

A mature self-identity is possible only if an individual
experiences several crises, finally arriving at a stage of commitment.

Question 48

Genetic Influences on Development

Answer 48

Gene-Environment Interaction: Genotype and environment interact to shape development (e.g., phenylketonuria).

Canalization: Some traits (e.g., language) are genetically determined, while others (e.g., reading) are more influenced by the environment.

Types of G-E Interaction: Passive, evocative, and active interactions shape a child’s development, influencing behaviors and choices over time.

Question 49

Pregnancy & Childbirth Stress

Answer 49

Prenatal Stress: Stress during pregnancy can affect fetal development, increasing risks like preterm labor and low birth weight.
Psychological Symptoms: 37% of mothers and 13% of fathers experience distress post-childbirth, but symptoms typically subside within 6 months.
Long-term Effects: Stress during pregnancy can lead to future health issues like hypertension and diabetes.

Question 50

Bereavement and Grief Stages

Answer 50

Lindemann’s Stages: Initial shock, sadness, anger, and resolution after a loss.
Parkes’ 5 Stages: Alarm, numbness, pining, depression, and reorganization (recovery).
Grief Process: Mourning influenced by cultural norms, resolving grief over time.

Question 51

Relationship Theories

Answer 51

Homogamous Mate Selection: People often pair with others from similar cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Equity Theory: Relationships are based on a cost-benefit analysis, considering both partners’ contributions.

Reinforcement Theory: Partners are chosen for the rewards and reinforcement they provide, enhancing attraction.

Question 52

Midlife Transition & Crisis

Midlife Transition:
Empty Nest Distress:
Downshifting:

Answer 52

Midlife Transition & Crisis

Midlife Transition: Occurs around age 40-45, often linked to realizing mortality, unmet goals, or changes like menopause or children leaving home.
Empty Nest Distress: Feelings of loneliness when children leave home.
Downshifting: Choosing a less stressful career for a more fulfilling life