Psychology Flashcards
Instinctual behaviors
genetically coded and happen automatically
What changes instinctual behaviors in humans?
cultural learning
adaptive trait
trait which increases the reproductive success of an organism
temperament
how individuals respond behaviorally and emotionally to environmental stimuli
biologically shaped
ex: two siblings might act very different as infants
heritability
how much of a trait is determined by genes alone
score from 0-1 (high heritability)
quantifies genetic versus environmental influence on a trait
example of promoters and regulatory genes shaping expression
5-HTT promoter gene can affect serotonin levels and influence depression
example of epigenetics
chronic stress can lead to methylation of certain genes which is passed down to future generations
epigenetics
study of how behaviors and environment can change gene expression
often involves methylation
patellar reflex
knee jerk
4 types of infant reflexes
1) Palmar grasp reflex
2) rooting and sucking
3) moro reflex- startled baby
4) babinski reflex- foot
critical period
time when experiences imprint development with life-long effects
language learning depends on the critical period
What is the prefrontal cortex? When does it fully develop?
prefrontal cortex is responsible for decision making
does not fully develop until 25
crystallized versus fluid intelligence
crystallized intelligence refers to knowledge acquired through previous experience, keep this in old age
fluid intelligence refers to being able to think and reason to solve problems, loose this in old age
attribution
process by which individuals explain the causes of either their own or other’s behavior
Independent versus dependent variables
independent variables are manipulated/selected by the researcher and go on the x-axis
dependent variables are measured in response to the independent variables and go on the y-axis
y-axis DEPENDS on the x-axis
experimental study
the researcher manipulates the independent variable and tracks changes in the dependent variable
confounding variable
affects both the independent and the dependent variables
mediating variable
provides a mechanistic link between an observed relationship between two variables
in between the independent and dependent variable
moderating variable
modulates the intensity of a certain relationship
ex: exercise could lessen the relationship between stress and heart attacks
operationalization
translating a goal of studying something into a practical way
negative controls
do not receive the treatment or intervention of interest
ex: placebo
positive controls
receive a treatment that is known to produce some outcome of interest
used to compare a known response to a new response
randomized control trial (RCT)
an experimental study where participants are either randomized into a treatment or control group
cross sectional study
an observational study in which researches take a set of people representative of a population, measure various things about them, and look for correlations
longitudinal design
a cross sectional study that makes multiple observations over time
allows the study to draw correlations over time
can a cross sectional study prove causation?
no, cross sectional studies can only prove correlation
protective factors
are independent variables associated with a lower risk of a negative outcome
cohort studies
subset of longitudinal cross-sectional studies in which a group of subjects is assembled according to some similarity and followed up over time
can experimental studies be longitudal?
yes, depending on the length and regularity of treatments and follow ups
case-control studies
compare a group of cases to a group of controls
when are case-control studies often used?
to determine the cause of a new disease
meta analyses
a type of systematic review thought to yield the strongest available evidence on a given topic
what is a huge consideration in the ethics of experimental design?
informed consent
validity
refers to the extent to which a study’s results are both genuine and generalizable
internal validity
refers to the extent to which we can draw casual connections from the study data
can we draw a direct cause and effect from our variables studied? if not, probably lacks internal validity
external validity
the extent to which we can generalize our study to real life
test validity
how well was the experiment able to test what it intended to test
construct validity
how well the experiment assessed what it wanted to
did the variable make sense to test?
example of the difference between test validity and content validity
an experiment could have test validity and accurately measure speed, but not assess athletic ability since it didn’t look at strength and flexibility
content validity
how well the test covers the full scope of something the researchers wanted to test
criterion validity
how well does our test match up with other well-respected tests measuring a similar thing
predictive validity
was the experiment accurate in predicting future results?
reliability
the extent to which a study results are consistent
prescision
how close together experimental measurements are
reliability versus precision
precision refers to a specific set of data points while reliability refers to the experiment as a whole
accuracy
refers to the closeness of a measurement to the actual, real value that we are measuring
relationship between reliability and validity
a reliable experiment must be precise while a valid experiment must be accurate
Likert scale
a way to quantify a questionare’s responses
participants select their response on a contiuum
social desirability bias
a type of response bias where respondents answer in a way that they think makes them look more socially successful
acquiescense bias
a type of response bias or thee tendency to answer “yes” when asked a question, especially when you aren’t sure of the answer
social facilitation
people who perform tasks better in group settings where psychological arousal is higher
need other people
When does social facilitation work?
for simple, familiar tasks like riding a bike
Yerkes Dodson Law
for harder tasks, performance decreases with psychological arousal
performance peaks at mid-level arousal
social loafing
people tend to work less hard in group settings
Bystander effect
people tend not to offer help if others are around
diffusion of responsibility
deindividuation
people lose self-awareness in a large group
group polarization
a group of people will arrive at final opinions that are more extreme than the initial positions of the individual members
informational influence
people in a group are more likely to stress points in line with the dominant viewpoint
leads to group polarization
normative influence
individuals affected by an opinion a majority of the group shares
want to seek social approval
group think
irrational decisions made within a group due to pressures towards harmony and individual conformity
illusion of invulnerability
characteristic of groupthink
belief that no serious harm will come to the group
what can illusion of invulnerability lead to?
excessive risk taking
illusion of morality
characteristic of groupthink
unbending belief in the moral righteousness of the group’s cause
illusion of unaniminity
characteristic of groupthink
the group assumes the majority of opinions in the group are unanimous
self-censorship
characteristic of groupthink
members who disagree with the group do not share their opinions
pressure on dissenters
characteristic of groupthink
members feel pressure not to contradict the majority group
collective rationalization
characteristic of groupthink
group finds reasons to ignore warnings
excessive stereotyping
characteristic of groupthink
negative views of outside groups
mind guards
characteristic of groupthink
certain members of the group filter out information that could destabilize consensus
conformity
when someone’s behavior, beliefs, or thinking changes to line up with the perspectives of others
what is a key to determining conformity?
there is a change in behavior
internalization
a genuine change in someone’s beliefs
compliance (subset of conformity definition)
when the person conforms, but internally dissents
identification
a person’s beliefs only change in the context of the group
outside the group they might have different views
convergence / congruence
group has preexisting similar behaviors/beliefs, not conforming
the Asch experiment
shows conformity
people will state incorrect answers / change their answer to incorrect if others do
compliance (2nd definition)
responses to requests from someone with no power to enforce that request
foot in the door technique
a compliance tactic
first make a small request, then follow with a bigger request
door in the face technique
a compliance tactic
make a large request you know will be rejected, and follow with a smaller and more reasonable request
low ball technique
a compliance tactic
present low price at first, only to raise it at the last minute
obedience
a change in behavior in response to a direct request from someone with power to enforce that request
social control
the ways social norms are taught, enforced and perpetuated
deviance
not following social norms
formal social norms
must be encoded somewhere with specific penalties for violations
informal social norms
not written down, no fixed penalties
folkways
insignificant informal social norms that involve small details, no real penalty for breaking
mores
important informal social norms which incur disapproval when violated
taboos
even more restrictive norms that generate extreme disapproval
ex: incest
are taboos informal or formal social norms?
they can be both
sanctions
either positive rewards or negative consequences for violating a social norms
peer pressure
the desire for approval from our peers
anomie
refers to a situation where there is a poor match between society’s and individual’s norms
what can anomie lead to?
a withering of social norms
differential association theory
views deviance as behavior that is learned socially
ex: criminals learn in prison
labeling approach
focuses on how behavior is affected by being labeled as deviant
primary deviance
deviant acts committed before someone gets a label
secondary deviance
deviant acts committed after getting a label
strain theory
focuses on the role of social and economic pressures that lead someone towards deviance
some people will commit crime under certain circumstances
socialization
how we learn social norms
fads
a new behavior becomes incredibly popular then fades
mass hysteria
irrational fear of a perceived threat
emotional signalling
physical stimuli and body language that communicate emotions
different focuses to study emotional signalling
cultural focus
gender focus
self-disclosure
a strategy of self-presentation
what you choose to disclose about yourself to others
managing appearances
a strategy of self-presentation
how you groom yourself, dress, nonverbal signals, etc
ingratiation
a strategy of self-presentation
an attempt to influence another person by becoming more likeable
aligning actions
a strategy of self-presentation
explaining our actions in a way that makes them more appealing
altercasting
a strategy of self-presentation
project an identity on someone and then expect them to act in a certain way
example of altercasting
since you’re a professional athlete, I shouldn’t have to tell you to practice
religning actions
explicitly expressing our unhappiness with a situation to appear in a certain way
Goffman’s approach to self-presentation
we have a front-stage self that we present and act
and we have a more authentic back-stage self
mere exposure effect
develop preferences/attraction for familiar people and things in proximity
What regulates/inhibits emotional responses?
prefrontal cortex regulates and restrains behavior
Where does emotional arousal come from?
the limbic system with the amygdala
secure attachment
child feels stress when the caregiver leaves but then is okay
comes from consistent and responsive caregiver
ambivalent attachment
child is intensely distressed when caregiver leaves
comes from inconsistent caregiver
avoidant attachment
child is not stressed when the caregiver leaves
comes from neglectful caregiver
disoriented attachment
child is confused when the caregiver leaves
comes from an abusive caregiver
altruism
helping other people at some cost to yourself
examples of social support
emotional, informational, tangible/material support and companionship
Fisherian selection
mate selection by exaggerated phenotypic appearance
ex: male peacock feathers to attract a mate
example of game theory in ecological interactions
should an animal be predatory or cooperative?
interference effect
irrelevant information interferes with recall
proactive interference
previously learned material can hinder subsequent learning
internal locus of control
attributing an outcome/behavior to a personal trait
latent learning
refers to learning without a change in behavior
Mead’s theory of identity
I - refers to the spontaneous/autonomous part of ourself
me - forms through interactions with others and the social environment
What is merit derived from?
achievements / achieved status
What is more important in color vision, cones or rods?
cones
cones are the photoreceptors of the eye for color
Cones versus rods
cones are the photoreceptors in the retina for color vision, located in the middle part of the retina
rods are the photoreceptors in the retina for light, located on outer part of the retina
saccade
a quick jump of the eye from one position to another as it takes in visual stimuli
limen
a threshold below which a stimulus is not perceived or not distinguished from another
libido
a term used in psychoanalytic theory to describe the energy created by survival and sexual instincts
libido drives all behavior and is part of the ID
negative reinforcement
taking something away to produce a desired response
ex: could reward a kid by taking away their chores
affective flattening
loss of emotional expression
negative symptom (loss of function)
type II error
gives a false negative
type I error
gives a false positive
mesolimbic system
the reward pathway
includes VTA and nuccleus accumbens
reticular activating system
brings about alertness
part of the brainstem
polysomnography
a sleep study measuring multiple physiological parameters
EEG
measures brain activity
EMG
measures muscle activity
What type of brainwaves are associated with complete wakefulness?
beta-waves
What type of brainwaves are associated with REM sleep?
similar brainwaves to beta-waves
When do a majority of dreams occur?
during REM sleep
REM rebound
after missing REM cycles one night, the next night we spend more time in REM to catch up
Stage 1 non-REM sleep
light sleep
low frequency theta waves found here
Stage 2 non-REM sleep
Heart rate and breathing slows
low frequency theta waves found here
Busts of K-complexes and sleep spindles
Stage 3 of non-REM sleep
deep sleep
delta waves
memory processing / recovering
How is drowsiness signaled?
pineal gland releases melatonin
How is wakefulness signaled?
adrenal cortex releases cortisol