psychological research (2) Flashcards
Scientific research
is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing
Prove if ideas are true or false
Use information to improve daily life and the world around us
The Scientific Method
proposing hypotheses, conducting research, and creating or modifying theories based on results
Clinical or Case Studies
Study of an individual in great detail
-advantages: Tremendous amount of detail, rich source for hypothesis generation
-disadvantages: Findings may not generalize to others
Naturalistic Observation
Observation of behavior in a normal environment
-advantages: Realistic picture of behavior
-disadvantages:
Difficult to set up and control
Observer effect: tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed
Observer bias: tendency of observers to see what they expect/want to see
Blind observers: people who do not know what the research question is
Establish clear criteria for recording observations
Laboratory Observation
Observing behavior in a laboratory study
-advantages:
Control over environment
Allows use of specialized equipment
-disadvantages:
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior
Can be difficult to generalize findings to “real world” situations or others
Survey
A technique for identifying the attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people through a series of questions
-advantages:
Quick, easy to administer
Data from large, diverse groups of people
Data from hard to reach, low base-rate populations
Study private behaviors (ex. Drinking behavior, suicidal thoughts)
-disadvantages:
People are not always accurate
Small variations in wording/ order of questions can affect outcomes
Researchers have to ensure representative sample if interested in generalizing findings to a certain population
Archival research
Use past records to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships
Cross-sectional research
Compare multiple segments of a population at a single time (such as different age groups)
longitudinal research
Study the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time
correlation
Relationship between two or more variables; when one variable changes, so does the other
correlation coefficent
Range from -1 to +1, Indicates strength and direction of the relationship between variables
positive correlation
Two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller
As one variable increases, the other variable increases
As one variable decreases, the other variable decreases
negative correlation
Two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller
As one variable increases, the other variable decreases
no/zero correlation
changes in two variables are not related to each other
A negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation
Independent Variable
Variable that is influenced/manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent Variable
Variable that the researcher measures to see how much the independent variable has
Experimental Group
Participants that experience the manipulated variable
Control Group
Participants that do not experience the manipulated variable Serve as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors (confounds) that might influence the results of the study; may receive a placebo
Difference between experimental and control group
Experimental Manipulation is the ONLY difference
Population
Entire group of individuals that the researcher is interested in (ex. College students)
sample
subset of individuals selected from the larger population
Random Sample
subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Random Assignment
Method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group (experimental or control)
Operational Definition
precise definition/description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables. Intention is that any researcher could use this operational definition to repeat the same experiment.
describes behavior so it is percievable and measurable
Confounds
extraneous variable that affect the variables you are interested in studying
Experimental Bias
Researcher expectations skew the results of the study
Participant Bias
participant expectations skew the results of the study
Single-blind Study
experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group, but participants do not (controls for participant bias)
Double-Blind Study
experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments (controls for both participant and experimenter bias)
Placebo Effect
people’s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience
Validity
extent to which a given instrument/tool accurately measures what it is designed to measure. A valid measure is always reliable, but a reliable measure is not always valid (online shopping today vs. during christmas time)
assumes the test is measuring exactly what it needs to
Reliability
consistency and reproducibility of a given result. When a study involves observations by multiple people, it is important that they all make observations and record them in the same way
Inter-rater reliability
measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event
Informed Consent
process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate.
