Psych Midterm Flashcards
parts of neurons
soma, dendrites, axon, axon buttons, synapse, nodes of ranvier, myelin sheath
glial cells
cells that are a structure for neurons to latch onto; regulate neuron nutrients, communication, death
dendrites
recieve messages and neurotransmitters
soma
main cell body with nucleus
axon
electrical impule akes message and sends next message, fibrous
nodes of ranvier
breaks in the myelin sheath of the axon so impulses move faster
neuron firing
all or nothing; starts charged, thriugh diffusion positive ions are absorbed into neuron and the charge is reversed (action potential); the ability to diffuse is regulated by voltage applied to the membrane; after firing positive Na ions are pumped out again
neuron and neurotransmitter interaction
axon buttons have synaptic besticles containing the transmitters; when fired, vesticles release transmitters and a process called “reuptake” lets them take back excess transmitter molecules; the neurotransmitter is then recepted by dendtrites
agonist neurotransmitter
mimics transmitter or enhances it to get more of a reaction
antagonist neurotransmitter
chemical that blocks receptors in the dendrites and prevents neurotransmitter reaction
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
spinal cord
connects brain to peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
autonomic system and somatic system
Autonomic nervous system
automatic regulation of body; parasympathetic and sympathetic systems
Somatic nervous system
carries senseoy info and controls skeletal system; sensory and motor systems
Parasympathetic nervous system
maintains body functions under normal conditions and works to conserve energy
Sympathetic nervous system
prepares body to react to stress, uses a lot of energy
Sensory nervous system
carries messages from senses to CNS
Motor nervous system
carries messages from CNS to skeletal system
interneurons
connect the motor system to the sensory; within the inner part of the spinal cord; responsible for reflexes
pituitary gland
master of the endocrine system; directs hormone production from hypothalamus instructions
pineal gland
responsible for biological rhythms and melatonin (sleep)
thyroid gland
regulates growth and metabolism
pancreas
controls blood sugar
adrenal glands
stress and sympathy
lesioning studies
study organisms with damage to the target area of the brain to gain understanding of the parts of the brain
Brain stimulation
uses electrical stimulation of the brain; invasively insert probe or use a magnet; neurons act as if they got a message
CT scan
x-rays of slices od the brain put together for a 2D image; good for blood flow (function) or damage to structures
EEG
records electrical pulses using electrodes on the scalp; functional only (no image); shows how long it takes to process stimuli
MRI/fMRI
uses magnetic field to measure alignment of H+; most thorough picture for structure or function
PET scan
radioactive glucose injected and scanned for absorption; shows blood flow and metabolic activity; detects problems in nervous system
Acetylcholine
action of muscles,earning, memory; high: muscles spasms, low: alzheimers
Dopamine
pleasure and reward; high: schizophrenia, low: parkinsons
Endorphins
euphoria and control of pain; low: addiction, high: natural opiate
Norepinephrine
released under stress; low: depression, high: anxiety
GABA
inhibits any neurons from firing so the right neuron is getting the right message; low: lethargic, high: bipolar
Glutamate
excititary, info processing an memory; high: brain damage after stroke
Serotonin
regulates sleep, mood, appetite, behavior; high: anxiety, low: depression
main depression neurotransmitter
low levels of serotonin
main alzheimers neurotransmitter
low levels of acetylcholine
main schizophrenia neurotransmitter
high dopamine
how drugs help neurotransmitter imbalances
agonists, antagonists, OR change the amount of time that neurotransmitters are left in the synapse
afferent neurons
sensory neurons
efferent neurons
motor neurons
wernicke’s area
meaning behind words is lost
broca’s area
words are not produced in a smooth or coherent fashion
right hemisphere
visual perception, music/art processing, emotions, pattern recognition
left hemisphere
language, math calculations, logical processes, analysis of detail
Phineas Gage
pole through his skull, damaged brain, could still function somehow
nervous system
network of cells carrying info in the body
Medulla oblangata
control involuntary movement of the heart and lungs
Brain Stem
connects hindbrain to spinal cord
Reticular formation
filter’s your attention and alertness to environment
Cerebellum
coordinate voluntary muscle movements; “little brain”
Pons
facial expressions, breathing, sleep/wake cycle
Tectum
first vision processing; part of auditory processing
Tegmentum
motor control
Substantia nigra
regulates mood and dopamine (addiction)
Pineal gland
biological rhythm and melatonin (sleep)
Pituitary gland
master of the endocrine/hormone system
Hypothalamus
Hormones Homostasis Hunger
Thalamus
post office for all senses but smell
Basal ganglia
voluntary movement with intent
Limbic system
Memory Emotions Motivations Education
Septal area
dopamine to the brain, sweet and soothing
Amygdala
fear responses and memories of fear
Hippocampus
long term memory
Occipital lobes
interpret optic info
Parietal lobes
touch, taste, navigation
Somatosensory lobes
perceived senses; like there’s a map on your body; hot and cold
Frontal lobes
emotions, consequences, goals
Motor cortex
voluntary muscles in face and limbs
Temporal lobes
auditory info and language
Corpus Callosum
connects left and right brain and facilitates
Glial Cells
myelin sheath, protection, regulation, nutrients
Meninges
protection, tissue full of spinal fluid between skull and brain
Gyri
the bumps that help scrunch up neurons to fit more for higher level cognition
Sulci
the creases that help scrunch up neurons to fit more for higher level cognition
REM Sleep
rapid eye movement, deep sleep, dreams, sleep paralysis, starts at ten minutes and gets longer as cycle goes on
factors affecting REM sleep amounts
get less REM if high physical exhertion, but get more REM (REM recovery) the next day
N1
theta waves, light sleep, ten minutes long, light sleep
N2
theta waves with occasional sleep spindles, twenty minutes long, slightly deeper sleep
N3
delta waves, deeper sleep, up to forty minutes, some dreaming, sleep walking (somnambulism), night terrors
Sleep paralysis
during REM, all muscles are paralyzed so that we don’t act out our dreams; some sleep disorders allow people to act them out
Hypnogogic hallucinations
hallucinations when you start to fall asleep
Circadian rhythm
the sleep-wake cycle, controlled by hypothalamus and glandular system that releases melatonin
Theories of Dreaming: Freud
to fulfill wishes related to sex and aggression
Theories of Dreaming: Memory Consolidation
dreams are when memories are consolidated, and when STM is gotten rid of
Theories of Dreaming: Cognitive
creative thinking, and info processing/problem solving
Theories of Dreaming: Activation Synthesis
dreams are entirely derived from pons firing off random electrical pulses that the brain tries to make sense of
Narcolepsy
randomly go straight to REM sleep, especially when emotionally excited
Sleep apnea
airway blocked during the night, can’t breathe while sleeping
Somnambulism
sleep walking during N3 usually and hard to wake up
Night terrors
extreme feelings of panic during sleep, N3 usually, and hard to wake up
Conscious State
higher-level consciousness is controlled processing (writing an essay),
Preconscious state
lower-level consciousness is automatic processing (alphabet song, daydreaming)
Altered state of consciousness
can be produced by hypnosis, drugs, fatigue, intoxication, meditation, sleeping, dreaming
William James
stream of consciousness: mind is a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings
Hypnosis
must be willing to be hypnotized, the person really hypnotizes themselves and someone else guides them to an altered state of consciousness
Stimulant Drugs
stimulate the nervous system
Depressant Drugs
depress the nervous system
Hallucinogenic Drugs
alter perceptions and may cause hallucinations
Barbiturates
major tranquilizers, depressants, sleep-inducing
Benzodiazepines
minor tranquilizers, depressants, lower anxiety
opiates
stimulants, pain relieving
cocaine
natural stimulant
marijuana
natural mild hallucinogen
alcohol
depressant
nicotine
mild stimulant
amphetamines
synthetic stimulant
physical addiction vs psychological addiction
physical: body can’t function without the drug, psychological: drug is needed to be emotionally “okay”
Sigmund Freud
latent and manifest content, introduced idea of subconsciousness
Ernest Hilgard
hypnosis theory of disassociation
NREM vs REM purpose
NREM is meant to restore from physical exhertion, REM is meant to restore from emotional exhertion
microsleeps
what the brain relies on when sleep deprived, sleep lasting seconds
adaptive theory of sleep
sleep at night to avoid being present during predator’s hunting times, conserve energy to hunt during the day
restorative theory of sleep
sleep is necessary to repair cells, release growth hormones
NREM vs REM characteristics
no paralysis during NREM, blood pressure and heart rate increases REM while stable in NREM, eye movement
wakefulness brain function
beta waves during alert times, alpha waves during drowsy times
Freud’s latent content
meaning of the dream
Freud’s manifest content
plot of the dream
subconscious awareness
not in current awareness (dreaming), Freud theory
hypnosis as disassociation
hypnosis worked on conscious mind and another part of the mind is fully aware
hypnosis as social role-playing
people are fully conscious but do whatever is expected of themselves
brightness
amplitude of a light wave
color
wavelength of a light wave
saturation
perceived purity of color
pupil
dilates to allow different amounts of light in
iris
muscles control pupil size
aqueous humor
clear liquid at front of eye, provides nourishment
cornea
bends light to hit retina
vitreous humor
jelly liquid in center of eye that provides shape
lens
changes shape to focus on object
retina
photoreceptor cells for light processing
optic nerve
sends info from photoreceptors
visual accomodation
lens changes thickness to focus on objects; people lose ability for lens to accommodate, need glasses
rods
see black and white, have low sharpness, good at low light levels
cones
fine detail in light, see color and movement
how the eye sees
separates into left and right visual fields, the cornea sees a flipped image, brain accommodates; each visual cortex gets half of the image
dark adaptation
when rods in the eye slowly takeover vision
trichromatic theory
three cones for red, blue, and green; brain computes color from amount of light the cone gets and how fast it fires (wavelength)
opponent-process theory
accounts for afterimages; red and green vs blue and yellow and are paired as opposites; when one is stimulated the other is inhibited
color blindness
occurs when cones are defective
humonculus
areas of the body with concentrated nerve endings where sensations are more sensetive
what is sound
the vibrations of molecules
pitch
wavelength of sound
timbre
richness of sound
volume
amplitude of sound
frequency of sound
determines the sounds you can hear
pinna
outer part of the ear that funnels sound
auditory canal
tunnel to the eardrum
eardrum parts
hammer, anvil, stirrup
eardrum
three bones in the ear vibrate from sound and amplify the vibrations, vibrates the oval window
oval window
makes fluid in the cochlea vibrate
cochlea
fluid sac with basilir membrane inside
basilir membrane
vibrates organ with hair cells that are sound receptors
pitch of sound and anatomy: place theory
place theory where hair cells are stimulated, the closer to the oval window, the higher the pitch
pitch of sound and anatomy: frequency theory
frequency theory where basilir membrane vibrates, the faster it vibrates the higher the pitch
pitch of sound and anatomy: volley principle
three groups of neurons fire in succession dividing the frequency so certain neurons create different sounds
pitch of sound and anatomy: correctness
place theory works for high pitch, frequency theory works for low pitch, volley theory accounts for ringing in the ears
conduction hearing impairment
vibrations don’t transfer to the cochlea
nerve hearing impairment
permanent damage to ear neurons or the brain receptors after high volume
taste receptors
taste is called gustation, receptors are taste buds; people have different numbers
papillae
bumps on tongue that are lined by taste buds, each have about 20 neurons; they’re replaced every week or so
papillae function
have chemical receptors that are activated by food, sent to brain and limbic system; enhanced by smell
Five tastes
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami; receptors for all tastes found everywhere
food texture
sensed by the somatosensory cortex
receptors cells for smell
have cells at the top of the nasal canal and there are around 10 million; the cells are small hairs that collect molecules; over 1000 smells; replaced 5-8 weeks
somesthetic senses
skin, kinesthetics, vestibular sensing
skin sense
nerves are below the skin surface; nerves are connected to the hair follicles; senses pain
somatic pain
senses if somethings about to be damaged or if it has been damaged and needs to be protected
visceral pain
internal organ pain
theories of pain: gate-control theory
pain passes through the spinal cord and allows pain to pass or inhibit
spinal cord and pain
pain receptor cells release substance P and activates the neurons in the spinal cord to tell the brain
kinesthetic sense
receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints tell the body its position in space in relation to eachother; ex. raising your hand while closing your eyes
vestibular sense
sense located in inner ear; impacts balance and body position
otolith organs
sacs above the cochlea, filled with liquid and crystals; when we move, the crystals vibrate and sends info to the brain
semicircular canals
three canals in the ear that have all three dimensional planes, fluid rotates in the canals
perception
the method by which the brain takes all the sensation a person experiences
constancy
when stimuli stay the same
size constancy
same size object no matter the distance
shape constancy
interpret a shape the same way no matter the view angle
brightness constancy
perceiving brightness even when light conditions change
cocktail party effect
focusing on a single stimulus and blocking out background stimuli
figure-ground relationship
objects are always seen as being on a background
proximity constancy
objects close together are automatically grouped
similarity constancy
objects that appear similar are grouped (ie uniformed sports team)
closure constancy
tendency to complete incomplete figures
continuity constancy
easier to group things simpler than to see them separately completely
contiguity constancy
connecting two events close in time as related
common region constancy
when objects are in a common area they are grouped
depth perception
being able to see 3-D; two ways: monocular or binocular cues
monocular cue
clues from seeing with one eye; see pictorial depth cues; how paintings create depth in pictures
linear perspective: monocular
too parallel lines seemingly converge
relative size: monocular
smaller figures are farther away
overlap: : monocular
items blocked are perceived as farther away
aerial perspective: monocular
from above, the farther away the object the hazier it appears
texture gradient: monocular
closer textures are distinct; farther texture is smaller and finer
motion parallax: monocular
in a moving car, closer objects move faster than further objects
accomodation: monocular
when lens changes to focus on object and it’s distance; brain interprets the distance
convergence: binocular
both eyes work together and put together the image; brain interprets the distance
binocular disparity: binocular
both eyes see different images; brain interprets the distance; the closer the object the more different the image
Absolute threshold
lowest level of stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time
Just Noticeable Difference threshold
the amount a stimuli must be changed in order to detect a difference 50% of the time
Signal detection theory
there are four categories of the types of reaction to stimuli: hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
Weber’s Law
there is a constant applied to the just noticeable difference that says when a stimuli will be perceived as different
Fechner’s Law
sensation is proportional to the log of the stimulus’ intensity
Steven’s Power Law
sensation is an exponential relationship with the stimulus’ intensity
Transduction
transfer of the energy of the stimulus into the neuroreceptors and brain response
receptor cells in the eye
bipolar, to ganglion, to amacrine
sound localization
ability to detect where a sound is coming from
tympanic membrane
outer membrane connecting the parts of the ear drum
ossicles
the three bones within the ear drum
visual cliff
test of depth perception
Wilhelm Wundt
“father of psychology”; introspection on own minds/feelings/thoughts/experiences
Tichner
from Wundt’s introspection theory, Tichner began structuralism: the breaking down of the mind into individual emotions and sensations
Hippocrates
four humors developed; each person has a mix of the four humors that determine behavior
Charles Darwin
influenced functionalism with theory of natural selection
John Watson
started behaviorism: observed behavior and used conditioning to study behavior; “Little Albert” experiment trained a kid to be afraid of a rat; proved learned phobias
Mary Cover Jones
first known woman psychologist; took Watson’s conditioning ideas and wanted to see if she could reverse learned phobias; trained “Little Peter” with behavior therapy
John Locke
tabula rasa idea that all learning comes from experience or perception
Stanley Hall
first president of the American Psych Association
Sigmund Freud
Freudian psych: the unconscious mind is motivated by sex and aggression; through psychoanalysis, can use childhood, repression, unconscious motivations to help patients
B.F. Skinner
developed the theory operant conditioning in the behavioral perspective
Abraham Maslow
pioneer of humanistic perspective with psychotherapy that focuses on self improvement
Sociocultural Perspective
behavior is based on group expectations and social norms; one’s environment; nurture part of nature vs nurture
Biological Perspective
behavior is based on biological events in the body
Behavioral Perspective
behavior is based on learning from punishment or reinforcement
Humanist Perspective
behavior is based on the idea that humans all need certain parts of the hierarchy and to feel like they have fulfilled their destiny
Cognitive Perspective
behavior based on storage and interpretation of information
Psychodynamic Perspective
behavior is based on the unconscious mind; therapy focuses on relationships as motivations; Freud: sex and aggression
Trait Perspective
behavior is based on one’s personality determined by genetics; nature part of nature vs nurture
Developmental Perspective
behavior is based on one’s stage of growth; combines nature and nurture factors
Evolutionary Perspective
behavior is based on human instinct developed by natural selection
Psychiatrist vs Psychologist
a psychologist is not medically trained, they have a PhD and have specific training; a psychiatrist is a medical doctor who diagnosis and treats disorders
Structuralism
using introspection and breaking down parts of the mind and isolating specific emotions, thoughts, and feelings.
Functionalism
how the mind allows everyday function focusing on genetics
Gestalt Psych
the original cognitive psychology; focused on sensation and perception before really understanding the brain
Introspection
technique where patients verbalize internal thoughts and feelings; broken down into individual sensations
Psychoanalysis
therapy designed around the psychodynamic/unconscious motives perspective
Schema
a mental frameworkEx. if a child only sees a four legged animal as a dog, it will call a cat a dog
objective introspection
Wundt had his students analyze and verbalize their own thoughts and mental activities, called objective introspection
definitions of phobias
Freud: symptom or repression; Watson: learned
six main perspectives
sociocultural; biological; behavioral; humanistic; cognitive; psychodynamic
cognitive neuroscience
brain imaging on physical brain processes
operant behavior
behavior trained by positive reinforcement
Pavlov
reflexes occur based on formerly unrelated stimulus; first to use conditioning
learning
any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice
why is learning “relatively permanent”
when you learn, your brain physically changes; it can always deteriorate later
learning by maturation
natural steps in growing up, like learning to walk
Pavlov’s experiment
dogs salivating after just seeing a food bowl, stimulated by a bell
classical conditioning
learning to elicit a non-voluntary reflex response to original stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
original stimulus that leads to the involuntary response
unconditional response
automatic/involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus
same as neutral stimulus, the new stimulus that creates the same response as the unconditioned response
conditioned response
always same as unconditioned response, now prompted by conditioned stimulus
acquisition
repeated paring of a neutral stimulus and the unconditional stimulus
requirements for classical conditioning
conditioned and unconditioned stimulus must occur close in time; must be paired several times (usually); conditioned stimulus must be distinctive
stimulus generalization
tendency to respond to a similar stimulus
stimulus discrimination
when they learn to tell the difference between the different stimuli
vicarious conditioning
conditioning after watching someone else respond to a stimulus
fear-inducing stimuli
provoke instinct because they are closely tied to survival
conditioning fear issues
its really hard to condition fear for objects that aren’t dangerous
Rescorla’s input to conditioning
the conditioned stimulus had to provide some indication about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus
operant conditioning
conditioning of voluntary behavior using reinforcement or punishment
positive punishment
adding something undesirable
negative punishment
taking away something good
positive reinforcement
adding something desirable
negative reinforcement
taking away something undesirable
Thorndike’s experiment
hungry cat in a trap box, motivated to solve puzzle by food outside of the box
law of effect
if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, the action tends to be repeated
Skinner’s contribution
all behavior is a product of learning, what happens after behavior reinforces the behavior
Reinforcement
anything after the response that makes it more likely
Punishment
anything after the response the makes it unlikely
Primary Reinforcer
fulfills basic human needs (hunger, thirst, pleasure)
Secondary Reinforcer
associated with primary reinforcers (money), these reinforcers have power because they are classically conditioned
Superstitious Reinforcers
when superstition about something is connected to a good/bad event
partial reinforcement effective
giving a reinforcer every five times a behavior happens rather than every time is better to prevent extinction
interval schedule
every specific amount of time
ratio schedule
every specific number of times the behavior occurs
fixed interval schedule
every x days there’s a reward
fixed ratio schedule
every x behavioral responses there’s a reward
variable interval schedule
random x amount of time there’s a reward
variable ratio schedule
random x number of behavioral responses there’s a reward
discriminative stimulus
only stimulus cueing a response to obtain reinforcement; always stop at a red light
shaping
conditioning in small steps; training a cat to use the toilet
extinction of operant conditioning occurs when
the reinforcement/punishment is removed
biological constraints to operant conditioning
when instinctual behavior trumps trained behavior
latent learning
when learning patterns, we make a mental cognitive map; but unless prompted with a reinforcer, what we learned may not be demonstrated
Tolman’s rats
demonstrated latent learning because they went through a maze without reward, but when given a reward they computed the fastest path; they had learned it but didn’t have the motivation to be the fastest until the food was present
Kohler’s chimp
demonstrated insight learning by setting bananas out of reach of a chimp, but gave him two sticks to put together to get the banana
insight learning
when given a problem with no model, a sudden flash of inspiration and a consummation of learning helps the chimp solve the problem; NOT from trial and error
learned helplessness
tendency to fail to act to escape when it is known that it is inevitable; actually changes brain chemistry by releasing serotonin to suppress fear of the danger; common in depression and PTSD patients
Seligman’s depressed dogs
dogs learned that couldn’t escape a shock, so when given the option to escape, they didn’t
observational learning
new behavior through watching the actions of a model
elements of observational learning
must pay attention to the model (helps if similar or attractive); learner must be capable of repeating behavior; learner must be able to retain the memory; must have motivation to perform act (model a reward helps)
Bandura and the Bobo Doll
demonstrated observational learning; when adults modeled aggression vs being nice to the doll, the children modeled what they witnessed; when rewarded for aggression, children were even more likely to be aggressive
contingency learning
the expectation of a stimulus from an indicator (bell); has a cognitive aspect as one is predicting a stimulus
watson’s contribution
classically conditioning baby albert
garcia’s contribution
taste aversion
rescorla and wagner’s contribution
contingency learning
overjustification
when extrinsic motivation decreases intrinsic motivation (love singing, get paid, don’t like singing anymore)
premack principle
when you reinforce a non-preferred activity with a preferred activity (getting starbucks after going to the gym)
memory
active system receiving info from senses, puts info into usable form, organizes it, stores it away
basic memory process breakdown
encoding of neural info from sensory info; storage; retrieval
information-processing model
most comprehensive model; details encoding, storage, and retrieval as memory sequence
parallel distributed processing model
encoding, storage, and retrieval are simultaneous; related to artificial intelligence and connectionism
levels-of-processing model
we remember what we’ve thought about deeply, thought about meaning
iconic sensory memory
visual memory; can hold everything you can see at one time; memory doesn’t last long (1 sec); helps see surroundings as continuous
eidetic memory
can see something they just saw, again
photographic memory
not really, eidetic memory is rare; just means they have a good memory
echoic sensory memory
hearing memory; smaller capacity than visual; only hears what can be heard at one time; memory lasts longer than visual (4 secs)
Short-Term memory
if sensory information is deemed important to hold onto, it goes to STM; held 12-30 secs;
STM and selective attention
STM determines what is most important stimuli to store in the STM
Encoding of STM
is literally a talking or sound within your head
Capacity of STM
about 7 pieces of information, so if you chunk info, you can hold more STM
maintenance rehearsal
repeating something to remember it, info stays in STM until rehearsal stops
memory interference
when rehearsal is interrupted, or capacity is exceeded, can’t encode
Long-Term memory
when information is intended to be kept permanently; theoretically we have unlimited storage, so everything is stored but not always free to be retrieved
Encoding of LTM
as images, sounds, smells, tastes; BUT mostly stored as meaningful concepts; can be through maintenance rehearsal, but usually elaborative
elaborative rehearsal
transfer STM to LTM by connecting new info to existing and known info
Nondeclerative/Implicit LTM
skills and habits; procedural and gained through practice and experience; hard to consciously explain
Declerative/Explicit LTM
information that makes up knowledge; easily made conscious
Semantic Declerative LTM
anyone can know, knowledge of concepts, learned
Episodic Declerative LTM
personal history, autobiographical memory; updated and revised constantly so that unimportant things disappear (can’t remember everything that has happened to you)
Semantic network model
when learning something, info is stored near closely related things; we can access things simultaneously because of the parallel distributed processing model
prospective memory
remembering that we need to perform a task later
retrieval cues
stimuli to remember, the more cues associated to something, the easier to remember it; anything can be a cue
encoding specificity
association between surroundings and remembered info
context of encoding specificity
remember something better when you’re in a similar environment that the memory was formed in
state-dependence of encoding specificity
memories formed during a similar physiological/psychological state are easier to remember in that state; when you’re fighting a friend, you remember bad things about them
recall
memories prompted with no external cues (fill in the blank question)
recall failure
when you struggle to recall, but it feels like “its on the tip of your tongue”; can’t be pulled into the auditory STM to recall it
serial position effect
info at the beginning and end of a list/word is remembered better
primary effect
first things are remembered because there’s nothing in the STM already
recency effect
allows you to remember end because of what was just heard/seen is still in the STM
recognition
memories prompted with cues and matching the cues to what’s known in memory; easier than recall
visual recognition
is VERY accurate
false positive recognition
when you think you recognize something because of a similar stimulus
Automatic Encoding
some memories require no effort to be encoded; but the more time passes, the more the LTM has been modified, the more inaccuracies
constructive processing
each time something is recalled, a memory is rebuilt from encoder info and sometimes things are added or excluded
hindsight bias
people falsely believe that they would’ve predicted something before being told about it
misinformation bias
a retrieval issue, if given new information it will change the memory (eyewitness accounts)
false-memory syndrome
creation of false memories through suggestion by others (hypnosis); memories must be plausible…BUT through false positive feedback implausible things can be made plausible
forgetting
the ability to forget is necessary for sanity
Ebbingaus and Forgetting
made a curve of how long it takes to forget random nonsense syllables in a list
distributed practice
a better way to form memories, learning over time is better
Memory trace
physical change in brain when memory was formed
memory trace decay theory
if traces go unused, they decay; “use it or lose it” memory
interference theory
there’s too much information in the way of the memory so you can’t retrieve it
proactive interference
previously learned material interferes with new learning
retroactive interference
new material interferes with old learning material
memory and the brain changes
memory is a change in receptor sites, sensitivity of the synapse, and proteins in neurons
consolidation
brain changes over time to form a memory
hippocampus and memory
forms declerative LTMs only
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from injury backwards; consolidation is interrupted; unfinished consolidation is lost
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory from the injury forwards; in dementia and concussions; symptoms include repetitiveness
Alzheimers and memory
type of dementia; anterograde amnesia at first and then retrograde; acetylcholine neurotransmitter
Infantile amnesia
early memories are implicit and nondeclerative only; not brought to consciousness easily; explicit memory doesn’t form until 2 yo
consolidation time period
can take seconds, minutes, days, months or years; that’s why amnesia of memories occurs for many time lengths
hyperthymesia
when someone remembers everything
tip of tongue phenomena
recall failure
Elizabeth Loftus
proved that eyewitness counts are wildly unreliable because of constructive processing
mood congruent memories
memories that are best remembered with context in similar mood states
transience
natural decay of memories over time
absent-mindedness
lapse of attention leads to bad encoding or forgetting
blocking
some sort of interference causes temporary forgetting
misattribution
attribution of memories to incorrect sources, believing a memory
suggestibility
incorporation of incorrect information into memory due to leading questions and deception
persistence
memories that can’t be forgotten, drives you crazy
misinformation effect
incorporation of incorrect information into memory due to leading questions and deception
framing
how a question is worded to influence problem-solving
LAD
schema for human language; language acquisition device
grammar
rules of language
morphemes
units of meaning: count each unit of meaning plus one for the whole word
phonemes
units of sound
overregularization
over simplification of grammar rules
linguistic relativity hypothesis
language influences thought, Whorf’s hypothesis
superordinate thinking
abstract concept
basic thinking
more specific example
subordinate thinking
most specific level of a concept
script thinking
a schema but for a familiar sequence
convergent thinking
one answer, all lines point to it
divergent thinking
starts at one point, comes up with many solutions
Chomsky
language acquisition device, all people have ability to communicate using syntax
Whorf
language influences thought, linguistic determinism
mental set
tendency to solve a problem the way that has been successful
functional fixedness
fail to see an object for use in a different way than normal
representative heuristics
stereotyping mental shortcut
availability heuristics
estimating the probability of certain events
prototype
concept that embodies the definition of a concept (apple is a fruit)
belief bias
preconceived beliefs lead to illogical reasoning
priming
activation of info by first anticipating learning and then relearning it
metacognition
process of thinking about how you think
semantics
homophones, rules to determine meaning of sentence
overextension
apply the same word to everything
Experimenter bias
when the experimenters introduce bias based on personal expectations
Observer bias
when the experimenters introduce bias based on personal expectations
Observer effect/Hawthorne effect
the known presence of an observer affects the participants behavior
confirmation bias
when the participant tailors their answer to make the observer happy
