Psych 101 chap 1-11 Flashcards
Voluntarism
Created by William Wunt. Belief that we control what we do and when we do it?
Structuralism
Created by Edward Tichener. Belief that we need to break down the idea of the conciseness into images and experience. Describe conciseness.
Functionalism
Created by Wiliam James. Comes from natural selection and comes from Structuralism. Doesn’t want to describe conciseness but instead figure out why. What the function is and we did we develop this way
Behaviorism
Created (mainly) by John Watson and BF skinner. Was focused on stimulus and what is observable. Believed in the black box theory’s, didn’t matter what happened in the brain, just what the input was and then was the output was.
Gestalt psychology
Created by Max Wertheimer. Believes` in breaking behavior into components loses meaning. Emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts
Humanism
Created by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Was a direct reaction to Freuds unconciseness mind theory and his primal urge theory. He wanted to focus on the things that happen whne humans do sometime right. Now called positives psych
What must all scientific theories be?
Something that is going to explain the relationship between two or more variables
Testable: Using the currently availably method
Falsifiable: must be possible (in principle) to make an observation that would show the proposition to be false even if that obsecration has not been made. (Freuds theories were mostly unfalsifiable)
Parsimonious: Focus on finding the simplest accurate explanation for cognitive processes and behaviors
Social Psychology
the branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual.
Bio psychology
Includes Evolutionary psychology. Focuses on the relationship between mind and behavior as well as their underlaying biological processes including genetics, biochem, anatomy and physiology (aka behavioral neuropsych)
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning
Evolutionary psychology
Seeks to identify human psychological adaptations with regards to the ancestral problems they evolved to solve.
Clinical psychology
Addresses behavioral and mental health issues faced by individuals across the lifespan. Created (mainly) by Sigmund Freud.
Intergroup contact theory (social psych)
Under certain circumstance (different races, sexes, sexualities) intergroup contact can reduce prejudge towards the outgroup
Social Compression Theory
People will evaluate their own abilities by comparing themselves to people similar to them
Social learning theory
People can learn by observing others
Hypothesis
A precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study.
Variable
A characteristics/ conditions that can change from person to person
Independent variables
A variable that is manipulated
Dependent variable
A variable that stays the same and is studied
Conceptual definition
Akin to the dictionary meaning
Operational definition
Definition of the theoretical constructs that are stated in the term of concreate observable produces.
What are the three big Research Categories
- Descriptive methods: Often concerned with a single variable of interest
2.Correlational methods: Examine associations between
two or more variables
3.Experimental methods: Examine cause-and-effect
relationships between two or more variables
Descriptive method
Involves the systemics observations and classification behavior(Not the most reliable)
Includes: Surveys, focus groups, case studies and observation research.
What are the 3 types of Observational methods
Naturalistic, Participant , and Laboratory
Naturalistic observation
Passive observation. Observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior (at least not intentionally). Is done in a public place so people are aware that they could be observed
Participant observation
Active observation. The researcher is actively involved in the situation. ( Involves the researcher getting involved deeply into their observation. )
Laboratory observation
Systematic observations are made within a laboratory setting, the observer can tailor the environment to what the study is about (rather than in the ‘real world’).
Pros of Descriptive research
1.Case studies and observational research can provide important insights and stimulate further research to test specific hypotheses
2. Surveys allow us to gather large amounts of information quickly and easily
3. Focus groups and interviews can provide rich, detailed information that may be lacking from a survey
Cons of Descriptive research
- Can cause Reactivity
2.Observer/experimenter bias, observers are not robots, they are looking for something and may look for what they want to see, you can help this by having 2 people report this so that you can see what alias in their reports - Self-report bias, we are not unbiased and we want to appear like a socially desirable group
Correlation Methods
Involve examining how variables are related you are MEASURING THESE variables, not manipulating the variables (without manipulating any of the variables)
What are the types of possible relationships that can be shown through correlation research.
- No relationship (0): between the variables
- Positives relationship (+): Both variables move in the same direction (both are positives or both negative) and can have a high/strong or weak/low degree based on how the close to 1
- Negative relationship (-): Variables move in the opposites direction (one is positive one is negative) and can have a high/strong or low/weak degree based on how the close to -1
What is the big rule in Correlation studies
Correlational studies do not tell us whether one variable causes changes in another variable(correlation=/causation)
Why isn’t correlation =/= causation?
Directionality problem: Not knowing which of the variables was the cause and which the is effect from a correlational observation .
Third party Variable: Not knowing if there was another unasked factor helped cause the results that the observer cannot accounts for
Experimental Methods
Manipulating an independent variable in order to determine its impact on a dependent variable (which we measure) ( Are tightly controlled (typically take place in the laboratory
Control group
This is a group that doesn’t get treatment or gets a placebo to see what the baseline effect would be
Confounds
a variable that is not your independent variable that is varying systematically along with your independent variable limit our ability to make causal claims
Random assignment
Every single person has an equal chance of being assigned to any part of your study. It’s a necessary component of an experiment, because this ensures that your different groups are equivalent on average
Random sample
Each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
Hawthorne effect
People’s tendency to behave differently when they become aware that they are being observed
Double Blind Experiment
A double-blind experiment is when both the participants and the experimenters who interact with the participants are unaware of which condition the participant is in
Population
The group that you want to be able to generalize your finding to. Every person in this population has a chance of being a part of the sample
Sample
The group of individuals from this population who are a part of this study
What is a field experiment
Experiments that occur in real-world settings (the “field”) rather than the laboratory. Random assignment is possible but it’s harder as the researcher has less control.
Quasi-Experiments
Experimental design where random assignment is not possible. Risk of potential confounds limits the claims that a researcher can make.
What is W.E.I.R.D
This is the idea that most study are not applicable to all due to them only being down on WEIRD populations. (Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, Democracies)
Reliability
How well the experiment can be repeated and how accurate the experiment is to get the same thing.
Interrater Reliability
This is when you don’t want to data from a single observer. You want to have a bunch of independent observers and then to review all of their data and to see what they agree on to get an overall idea of what the experiments
Test-retest
This is when you can repeat the test or study that you did before and get the very similar results. You want to have a continuality.
Validity
how well the results among the study participants represent true findings among
Construct validity
How accurately have the variables been Operationalizations. (Making sure a study is measuring the correct things and making sure that the study is taking into account the external and internal validity )
External validity
How well do we think the results from this study would translate into different people and contexts OUTSIDE the study. (Generalizability)
Internal validity
How well has the study established a cause and effect relationship between variables (Are there confounds in the experiment?) Causality
Descriptive statistics
It helps analyze data to help describe, show or summarize it in a meaningful way
Inferential statistics
Allow us to extend conclusions from a sample to a population
Reproducibility
That a study can be duplicated in method and/or analysis
Replicability
when the entire research process is conducted again to test the same question, wheather or not the results would be the same.
William Wundt
Opened the first psychology in university.
William James
Published “Principle’s of Psychology”, helped created Functionalism
John Locke
Creator of Blank slate theory.
Max Wertheimer
Creator of Gestalt Theory.
Sigmund Freud
Created psychodynamic/ the ideas of clinic psychology.
Abraham Maslow
Created humanamtic psych
Ulric Neisser
Created the cognitive revolution
CNS
consist of the spinal cord and brain
PNS
Nerves exiting the CNS carry sensory and motor information and from the rest of the body. Has two other pathways.
Somatic nervous sytems
The part of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles
Autonomic Nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of the glands, organs and smooth muscles.
sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that coordinates arousal.(The fight in FOF)
parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system associated with rest, repair, and energy storage.( The recovery of the FOF)
enteric nervous system
The division for the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of gastrointestinal system.
Endocrine system
A system responsible for the release of hormones into the bloodstream.
Neuron
A cell of the nervous system that specialized to send and receive neutral messages
Brainstem
The part of the brain contains midbrains, pons, and medulla. Does reflexees, has large white matter pathways and is coninous with the brain stem.
Neuron
A cell of the nervous system that is specialized to send and receive neuron messages
Axon
Transmits neural impulses
Cell body
Contain the nucleus
Dendrites
A branch from the neuron cell body that usually receives input from other neurons
Gila
Nervous system cell that preform varity of supportive function to neuron including: Formation of the blood barrier and myelin and cleaning up deabury.
Myelin
A fatty insulating material covering some axons.
Action potential
The electrical signal arising in a neuron’s axon
Resting Potential
The measure of the electrical charge across a neural membrane when the neuron is not processing information.
Synapse
A point of communication between two neurons
Neurotransmitters
A chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse
Receptors
A special channel in the membrane of a neuron that interacts with neurontransmitters released by other neurons
Reuptake
A process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released
Agonists
Drugs that enhance the actions of neurontransmitters
Antagonists
Drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters
Neurogensis
The generation of new neurons
Neuroplasticity
The ability of neurons to change in structure and function throughout the lifespan
Brainstem
The part of the brain containing the midbrain, pons and medulla
Medulla
The brainstem structure that lies just above the spinal cord
Pons
A part of the brainstem located between the medulla and the midbrain. Invovled in sleep-wake cycle and breathing.
Cerebellum
A structure attached to the brainstem that participates skilled movement and in humans complex cogntive processing
Midbrain
The part of the brainstem that lies between the pons and cerebral hemisphere
Reticular Formation
A collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem that participate in mood, arousal and sleep
Thalamus
A subcortical structure involved with the processing sensory information’s state of arousal, learning and memory.
Basal Ganglia
A collection of subcortical structure that participate in control of movement
Nucleus Accumbens
A subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction
Hypothalamus
A subcortical structure that participate in the regulars of thirst, temperatures, hunger, sexual behavior, and aggression
Hippocampus
A subcortical structure that participate in memory
Cingulate Cortex
A subcortical structure above the corpus callosum. Its anterior (forward) segment participates in decision making and emotion, and its posterior (rear) segment participates in memory and visual processing.`
Amygdala
A subcortical structure located in the temporal lobe believed to participate in emotional processing.
Corpus Callosum
A wide band of nerve fibers connecting the right and cerebral hemisphere
Cerebral Cortex
A thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemisphere
Frontal lobe
The most forward of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; location of the primary motor cortex and areas responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes.
Parietal Lobe
The most forward of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; location of the primary motor cortex and areas responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes.
Occipital lobe
The lobe of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain; location of the primary visual cortex.
Temporal lobe
The lobe of the cerebral cortex that curves around the side of each hemisphere; location of the primary auditory cortex.
Prefrontal cortex
The most froward part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. Plays a role in the regulation of complex cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning.
Executive functions
The set of basic and higher-level cognitive processes that enable self-regulation and cognitive control of behavior (e.g., planning, decision making, and goal pursuit).
Orbitofrontal cortex
A part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control.
sensation
The process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body.
Perception
The process of interpreting sensory information.
Transduction
The translation of incoming sensory information’s in neural signals
Sensory adaptation
The tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulation
Bottom-up processing
Perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions
Top-down processing
Perception process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information
psychophysics
The study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce.
Absolute threshold
The smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected
Difference threshold
The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Signal detection
The analysis of sensory and decision-making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli.
Vision
The sense that allows us to process reflected light
Cornea
The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina
Pupil
An opening formed by the iris
Iris
The brightly colored circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye
Lens
The clear structure behind the pupil the bends light toward the retina
Retina
Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye
Fovea
An area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision
Rods
A photoreceptor specialized to detect dim light
Cones
A photoreceptor in the retina that processes color and fine detail
Optic nerve
The nerve exiting the retina of the eye
Optic tracts
Nerve pathways travelling from the optic chiasm to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain.
Blind spot
Area where the optic nerve meets the brain so there are no vision cells
Dorsal stream
The “where” visual pathway that extends from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe
Ventral stream
The “what” visual pathway that extends from the occipital lobe into the temporal lobe
Trichromatic theoory
A theory of color vision based on the existence of different types of cones for the detection of short, medium, and long wavelengths.
Opponent process theory
A theory of color vision that suggests we have a red-green color channel and a blue-yellow color channel in which activation of one color in each pair inhibits the other color.
Depth perception
The ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions
Monocular cues
A depth cue that requires the use of only one eye
Binocular cues
A depth cue that requires the use of both eyes
Cochlea
The structure in the inner ear that contains auditory recptors
Basilar membrane
Membrane in the cochlea on which organ of Corti is located
organ of Corti
A structure located on the basilar membrane that contains auditory receptors
Auditory nerve
Nerve carrying sound information from the cochlea to the brain
Somatosensation
The body senses including body position, touch, skin temperature and pain
Vestibular system
The system in the inner ear that provides information about body position and movement
Gate control theory
The theory that suggests that input from touch fibers competes with input from pain receptors, possibly preventing pain messages from reaching the brain
Olfactory nerve
A nerve carrying olfactory information from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs.
olfactory bulbs
One of two structures below the frontal lobes of the brain that receive input from the olfactory receptors in the nose.
Papillae
small bumps on the tongue that contains taste buds.
Glutamate
primary excitatory neurotransmitter
gaba
Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
Serotonin
control Mood, impulsiveness, hunger, and sleep
Dopamine
Reward and motivation, voluntary movement
Acetlocholine
Movmenet, memory, cognition and sleep
Epinephrine & norepinephrine
Stress reponsers (the fight or flight neurotransmitters )
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual organization
These principles help expelling how we perceive object in our environment
Zygote
The term used to describe a developing organism immediately following conception unto the embryo stage or the first two gestational weeks in a humans
Embryo
The term used to describe a developing organism between the zygote and the fetus stages or between weeks three and eight weeks in humans
Fetus
The term used to describe a developing organism between the embryo stage to birth or about eight to approximately 40 weeks in humans
Teratogen
A chemical agent that can harm the zygote embryo or fetus
FAS (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
A group of conditions that can occur in an individual when a mother consumes alcohol during pregnancy. Effects can include physical abnormalities and cognitive and behavioral problems.
pruning
The process in which unused or unnecessary neurons and synapse are eliminated in order to enable more efficient neural processing
Assimilation
The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise the schema
Accommodation
The incorporation of new infomation into an exisiting schema that require revision of the schema
Equilibration
The process by which a child engages in assimilation are accommodation in order to make sense of the world
Sensorimotor stage
Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at birth and ending at the age of 2 years and characterized by active exploration of the environment. can include
Circular reactions: Repetitive actions observed in children during the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development
Lack of object permanence: The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present.
preoperational stage
Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at the age of 2 years and ending at the age of 6 years and characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and limits on the ability to reason logically.
Conservation
The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change it’s quantity
Egocentrism
Limitation on the ability to understand the point of view of other people
Concrete operational stage
Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at the age of 6 years and ending at the age of 12 years and characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning.
Formal Operational Stage
Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at age 12 and extending through adulthood and characterized by mature reasoning capabilities.
Zone of proximal development
In Vygotsky’s theory, tasks that the child can accomplish with the assistance of more experienced or knowledgeable individuals.
Theory of the mind (TOM)
The understanding that others have thoughts that are different one’s own
Attachment
Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregivers
What are the types of attachment?
Secure attachment:
Insercre attachment
Types of insecure attachment
Insecure-resistant (anxious- ambivalent): Clings to caregiver, gets upset, both want and resists comfort (may act angry)
Insecure avoidant (anxious- avoidant): Little distress when caregiver leaves, avoid the caregiver upon their return.
Disorganized attachment:
Later addition, inconsistent, odd behaviors
Parenting styles
The way that a parent handles behavioral regulations (limits and boundaries) and parental support (love and warmth)
4 types of partenting styles
- Authoritarian: High Behavioral regulation, Low parental support
- Authoritative: (the most effective!): High behavior regulation
High parental support - Indulgent (permissive)
Low behavior regulation
High parental support - Uninvolved(neglectful) Low behavior regulation Low parental support
Secondary sex characteristics
Physical features that allow us to tell males from females, such as breasts on women and beards on men. This differs from primary sex characteristics, or body structures directly concerned with reproduction.
Preconventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to expectations of reward or punishment.
conventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which moral choices are made according to law or public opinion.
postconventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason.
Identity
A consistend unified sense of self
Reflexes
An inevitable involuntary responses to stimuli
Instincts
An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience.
Associative learning
The formation of association or connections among to unrelated stimuli and behaviors through a conditioning process. Ex: Classical and Operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which association are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which associations are formed between behavior and their outcomes
Nonassociative Learning
Simplest form of learning where an oragaism reaction to a stimli changes overtime without stimuli association or pairing. Ex: Habitation and Sensezation
Habituation
A simple form of learning in which reaction to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease.
Sensitzation
An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus
Observational learning
Learning that occurs when one organisim watches the actions of another organism: also knwon as social learning or modelling
Implicit learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of awareness
Explicit learning
Learning that involves conscious awareness
conditioned stimulus (CS)
An environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a response without prior experience.
Conditioned responses (CRs)
A response learned through classical conditioning.
unconditioned responses (UCRs)
A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience.
Acquisition
The development of a learned response
Extinction
The reduction of a learned response. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) no longer follows the conditioned stimulus (CS). In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior.
spontaneous recovery
During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest.
inhibition
A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus (CS)
discrimination
A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli
Higher-order conditioning
Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus (CS) also elicit conditioned responses (CRs).
latent inhibition
The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar.
Aversion therapy
An application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS.
systematic desensitization
A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear.
conditioned reinforcers
A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
Negative reinforcement
A method for increasing behavior that allows organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence
Punishment
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior.
Positive punishment
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency a behavior by applying aversive stimulus
Negative punishment
A method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs
partial reinforcement
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions, but not others.
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behavior
variable ratio (VR) schedules
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors.
fixed interval (FI) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval is reinforced.
variable interval (VI) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period is reinforced.
partial reinforcement effect in extinction
The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement.
method of successive approximations(shaping)
A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur; also known as shaping.
latent learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement
Token economy
An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviours.
imitation
copying behavior’s that are unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously.
What is the difference between Classical and Operant conditioning?
In classical conditioning, the learner does not have to do anything to earn and in Operant conditioning is when the learner as to do something by changing it’s behaviors.
When does the lens muscle in the eye move?
In tightens and becomes more spherical to see closer objects and it relaxes and flattens to see objects that are farther away.
Differences between the Dorsal stream and the ventral stream
Dorsal stream: extends upward from V1 in the occipital into the parietal lobe. This is the “where” pathway that helps us process movement and localize objects in space
Ventral Stream: extends downward from V1 in the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe. This is the “what” pathway that responds to shape and color and contributes to our ability to recognize objects and faces
