Developmental Psych 6-11 Flashcards
At what age can we tell the difference between objects and agents?
About 6–9 months
How do babies 6-9 months organize subject?
Has either people or objects
What are the STRONG cues of agency
Has a face, contingently responds
What are the WEAKER cues of agency
Symmetry, eyes, self propulsion (moving by self) and no rigid transformation like expansion and contraction
What do we expect agents to do?
Have goals, have intention (even if that fails), can see, want, know and believe
At what ages do we understand goals?
About 6 months old, the earliest skill.
What is the ages we understand agent skills?
Goals: 6 months
Understanding that we don’t know something: 12 months
Intentions: 18 months
What experiment proves 6 months old understand goals?
The bear and ball experiment. Habituated babies to an experimenter reaching for a bear. Then switched the location of the bear and ball and had the experimenter reach for the ball, which is now where the bear was. The babies were surprised because they expected the goal to be the bear and not the location.
What experiment proves 12 months old understand intentions?
Infants watched an actor succeed or try and fail to take apart a dumbbell top. Infants would try to take the dumbbell top off, even if the actor failed because they understood the intention.
When do infants understand we have different preferences?
About 18 months. (Proof from the broccoli experiment)
Consciousness
Being aware you exist
Self Awareness
Being aware that you exist WITHIN the environment and that you are separate
How do we develop self awareness?
Sense of agency: (3-5 months): You understand that you can hit and cause movement within the object
Joint Attention (12 months): Requires understanding that the child and the teacher are both watching the same
Mirror Self Recognition (18–20 months): If a child looks in the mirror they understand that they are seeing themselves and not a new baby
Can recognize photo of themselves (25-30 months)
What are the criticism of the mirror self recognition?
The animal may fail because they don’t understand what a mirror is. So they are self-aware but not aware of what a mirror is.
They know but they don’t care about it
Don’t understand the mirror is then they just understand that when they move, it moves?
Similarity Facilitates reasoning
Understanding our own actions may help us understand others
What happens when 3-month-olds were given grabbing skills?
They looked longer at the new goal due to the experience compared to 3-month-old who didn’t have that experience.
Why do we think goals and grabbing happen at the same time?
We build sensorimotor representation when we act and then neurons can be active when we watch other people act. If we haven’t acted we don’t have the neurons.
When do infants TYPICALLY show violation of expectation/goals?
6 months, at the same time as grabbing
Theory of mind
Reasoning about beliefs, as it requires us to think about other perspective of the world.
Why is Theory of mind called that?
Because we are making theories about what is happening in another persons mind and make prediction about what others can do
Why does Theory of the mind take so long to develop?
You are developing the Right Tempro- parietal junction
Explain the Sally and Ann/Classic test of changing location
Two puppets, one named Sally and one named Ann, are together and they each have a box. Sally is playing with a marble and puts the marble in her box and leaves. Ann then takes the marble and moves it to her box. Sally comes back, and the child is asked where Sally will look first for there marble.
What are the criticism of the theory of the mind puppet theory
This issue may be due to issues with inhibition and that is why they fail the task
Could be from the difficulty with verbal task demands
Younger children DO engage in pretend play and pass simplified false belief task
When do children pass the Sally and Ann test?
About 4 1/2 to 5. Children younger will answer incorrectly
What are some of the typical traits for Autism individuals
Differences in communication (more literal, reduced eye contact)
Enjoyment creating system/organization
High value on routine and aversion to changes or new experiences
Sensory sensitivity (loud noises and crowed placed)
Special interest (deep focus on niche subjects)
What is the systematizing Empathizing Model
The belief that autistic children struggle with empath or lacked theory of mind. This strengthened the issue of gender differences, as more men had were diagnoses. It confirmed that women are born with empathy
Double Empathy Problem
Suggest that rather than autistic people having defects that neurotypical people and autistic people both have trouble understanding each other
What is emotion?
Subjective feelings which are accompanied by physical changes, thought and conition and desire to take action
What are some of the ways that we measure emotion?
Facial expressions (Primary measurement): Two people can be trained to rate the same emotion
Vocal or behavioral/body movement measures: crying, slumping and waving arm etc.
Physiological components: Can vary across individuals and needs about a 10-minute baseline
When do start showing positive emotions
6–10 weeks
Social smile
At first, it’s during sleep and not a response to external stimuli
At about 3-6 weeks it moves from reflex to a response to stimuli
By 6 weeks it’s a response to people, and they smile more at people than objects
How do baby social smiles different from adult smiles
Typically, higher up in the cheeks, they smile more at people and as they smile more they get more selective
What is one of the theories to why babies smile?
It’s a survival tool to get affection and interest from caregivers to get food
What is interest?
This is a neutral/positive emotion
Happens at about 5 months
Seen with brows more furrowed, lip curled
How babies feel surprised?
Happens at about 5 months
Neutral/positive emotion
The difference between this and interest it that it’s more intensive of an emotion
A rarer emotion
Can you only have one emotion at once?
Yes in the first year of list, it’s more common to have more than one emotion at once.
In the first year of life, what does most emotoin start with?
Surprise
What is the first negative emotion?
Generalized distress (the first ever emotion)
What makes studying negative emotions
Difficult to identity different type of negative responses in young infants as they tend to all bleed together
Can’t force children to have negative emotion, so relies on natural reactions
What are the types of negative emotion that young infants express?
Pain
Disgust: Scrunched noses, rounding around the mouth
Anger and Sadness: Often happens with different emotion
Fear: Relatively rare emotions for young infant because it has a cognitive component
What are mixed emotions in children?
Often times, young children faces will not match their physical expression due to the mixed emotions they are experiencing
When does fear of strangers start?
About 8 months
How doe babies develop fear of stranger?
From birth to 6-7 month: Infants do not distinguish who can comfort them
6–7 months: Want to be around people they know when SPECIFICALLY upset
8 months: Distress when around strangers, though temperament and the actions of the stranger effect feelings
Separation anxiety
Starts at about 8 months and is a distress of people when the caregiver leaves and is connected to fear of strangers and ends at 2 years
When does separation anxiety peak
14 months
When does self-conscious emotions show?
Around 15-24 months
When does prideful emotions show
About 3 years old
What is the difference of shame vs guilt
Shame: Focus on the self
Guilt: Focus on the others (regret for effect of one’s behavior)
How do parenting styles affect children feelings of shame and guilt
Parents who focus on badness when punishing, the more a child feels guilt
4-9 months infant emotions expression
Infants can match their expression to the emotional express of adults, but not truly feeling what the adult is feeling
8-9 months infant emotions expression
Infants show understanding that others emotions expression pertain to specific object/event
What is the development of mental states?
- Knowlegede
- Emotional states
- Desires
How do infants use emotions in the environment to guide behaviors
In uncertain situations, infants will look around them and MIMIC the beahvior that the people around them are showing
How do young children link belief to emotions
Since it’s one of the more complex beliefs, it happens around 6 years old.
How does adverse experiences affect children’s quickness in processing emotions
Children who have experienced adverse treatment are able to detect angry faces earlier than non abused children.
What is Attachment Theory?
An adaptive close, enduring emotional bond between child and caregiver.
What is the behavioral perspective for why we become attached to caregivers?
Attachment not considered necessary in this perspective, and it’s because of the classical conditioning that the baby develops associating the mother with food.
Evolutionary perspective
Infants are innately prepared to form relationships with a caregiver so that they can be taken care of. It’s done out of pure survival. Supported by how cute babies are and the ways they gain caregivers attention through crying, cooing and early social smiles to grow attachment.
Harlows Monkey
Infants monkey were raised in a lab away from mother and given a wired monkey with food and a cloth monkey with no food but comfort. Found babies preferred the cloth mother regardless of wheater they receive food
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby introduced the concept of primary caregiver as a secure base which gives children the security to go out and explore their environment
Phases of Attachment
Newborn (2 months): Preattachment phase. Satisfied with whoever responds. Social interaction with caregivers include: feeding, changing, cuddling
2-7: Attachment in the making. Certain people are able to soothe the baby easier. Much more time spends in alert state. Upset if social interaction are broken by adult
7-24 months: clear-cut attachment. Increased interaction with caregivers using new movements. Stranger/separation anxiety starts.
2 years and on: Reciprocal Relationships. Kids being taking their parents feelings into account. More back and forth conversation. Separation distress typically decreases
What are the attachment types reactions to the stranger experiment?
Secure attached: Positive to stranger when caregiver is present, when caregiver leaves infant is upset but when caregiver comes back they look to them for comfort and is easily soothed
Insecure/avoidant type: Indifferent to caregiver, when caregiver leaves they can be comforted by the stranger, does not care or seek comfort when caregiver returns
Insecure/resistant: When caregiver is infant is clingy and won’t explore, is extremely upset when caregiver leaves and when caregiver comes backs they give mixed signals (look for comfort while pushing them away)
Disorganized type: NO consistent way of handling stress of the stranger situation, fearful smiles, looking away while approaching caregiver, extreme mood changes ONLY type that is an indication of abuse
What are some of the predictors of secure attachment
Response to child quickly and consistently, mutual smiling, making sounds, engaging in coordinated play
Authoritative parenting style DEFINITION
High demand, high warm. Relationship is reciprocal responsive and high in bidirectional communication.
What are the four parenting styles? (unextended)
Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, disengaged
Authoritarian parenting style DEFINITION
High demand, low warm. Relationship is controlling, power assertive, high in unidirectional communication.
Permissive parenting style DEFINITION
Low demand, high warm. Relationship is indulgent, low in responsibility.
Disengaged parenting style DEFINITION
Low demand, low warm. Relationship is rejecting and neglecting.
Effects of Authoritative style
Parent: Clear standard and limits for child, and firm about enforcement of boundaries. Allow child automitty within limits. Attentive to child’s needs and concern
Child: Self assured, high self-regulation, low in anti-social behaviors
Effects of Authoritarian style
Parents: Nonresponsive to child needs, enforce demand through the exercise of parental power and harsh punishments. Oriented towards obedience and authority
Child: Socially withdrawn, less independent and relay on parents to make choices and teenagers with these parents can be anxious, depressed, aggressive and rebellion.
Effects of Permissive parenting style
Parents: Nurturant and accepting, but disorganized and have a lack of confidence and few imposed demands. Child makes the majority of decisions.
Child: Infant and toddlers have attachment problems and are more likely to defy rules and have difficulty with authority. Can have an overly inflated self-esteem. Teenagers at higher risk for substance abuse and lower grades.
Effects of Disengaged Parenting style
Parent: Meets child basic needs but absent. Focused on their own goals. Don’t set limits for their child, but don’t support them.
Child: Low self-esteem and regulation skills. Have attachment issues and at risk for depression and anxiety.
What are some of the factors that affect parenting styles?
Culture: If a style is more common in one style it can be isolating/conventional when a parent using a different style.
Socioeconomic factors: High SES more likely to have permissive/authortive style. Low SES more likely to have authoritarian style which could help prepare their child to the world as they have less power and can’t push against authority.
What age do children start lying
At about age 4. Beforehand, children struggle to lie and will tell the truth if asked.
What makes a child better at lying?
-Children with younger siblings,
-Children with better performance on theory of mind, are better at MAINTAINING a lie.
-Playing games around keeping secrets.
- Children in environments with harsher punishments are more likely to lie and maintain lies
What is social learning?
Its a simple learning by trial and error learning. Can be time-consuming and dangerous in nature.
What are the two forms of social learning?
Imitation: Copying what the other person is doing
Testimony: Learning from listening to others
What is over-imitate
Encoding and reproducing all actions, including irrelevant actions
Who is most and LEAST likely to over-imitate?
Primate are don’t over-imitate, and adults are more likely to over-imitate.
Why do we over-imitate?
-In an attempt to reinforce social bonds
-Think that the silly steps serve a cultural or social purpose we don’t know
- The associate intentional and attentional cues with teaching
- Assume the “silly” steps serve an unknown causal purpose
How do children choose who to trust?
Accuracy: Who is more consistently accurate over time? If over 3 years old, this is the number one predictor.
Familiarity: Who do we know? 3 and under will use this most
Age: If there aren’t other factors, age is used as the determining factors. Typically, older individuals are trusted more
Consensus: If they cannot check claims for accuracy, children are sensitive to what MOST people think
What are the tradeoffs of teaching?
When taught, we assume the teacher is telling us everything we need to know and do not explore and expand further.
Self Regulation
Monitoring and Controlling our own behavior. Emotions or thoughts and altering them to meet the demands of the situation
What is the correlation to delayed gratification
Higher SAT scores, better socioemotional coping, higher educational attainment, self-worth and resilience
What is the Marshmallow Test?
Children were shown a marshmallow before the experimenter leaves and told if they wait til the experimenter gets back, they will get another marshmallow. At any time they can ring the bell and just eat the marshmallow
When do WESTERN children do better on the marshmallow test?
-Districting themselves with fun thoughts
Thinking of the reward in abstract feature and not the exciting feature
They play for someone else rather than themselves
How does Socioeconomic effect the marshmallow test?
Though from low SES, households have learned that delayed gratification does not benefit them and the instant reward is more important than the long term.
What is a minimal group?
People are assigned to different groups based on arbitrary factors and study how that affects our social reactions.
What are the two nuanced definition of studying groups in psychology?
Socially imposed and identified by individuals
What the idea of socially imposed?
It speaks to the lack of socially boundaries that are there are between social groups like race, gender and sexuality. Yet we divide people up into this group to research them. This causes generalization of groups to force statistical sense.
What the idea of identified by individual?
The idea that people are unquie in identity and researchers emphasize groups as individual. These social boundaries, while aren’t very clear or distinct, they are become a part of our identity.
What are the three different theories purposed by
Social constructionism: the idea that these categories are real, universal and object
Assemblage theory: The way that we see indeity is based on what is happening and cannot be separated from the world context
Dynamic systems: Things can change overtime, and within our environment, and we have the power to change how we are previeved to an EXTENT
What is the development of racial understanding?
Newborn: no preference
3 months: Prefer race that matches the caregivers over other race faces
2.5: Do not use race basis as social judgment or behavioral preference
late preschool/early elementary: Preference member of their own group
Explicit bias
Bias that is stated and spoken about
Implicit bias
Happens outside of the conscious awareness
What is the conceptual development of gender?
6 months: Distinguish between female and male adult VOICES
9-11 month: Distinguish between female and male adult FACES
2.5: Develop gender identity and categorize self
3 years: Gender stability and Believe that gender is the same overtime BUT it’s superficial
5–6 years: Gender constancy and consistently demonstrate even subtle gender stereotypes
How do people react to male nonconformity
Children react MORE negatively to violation of gender stereotype displayed by boys compared to girls
When does gender bias start?
At 5 they show gender bias and by 6 they show societal gender bias
Sex v Gender
Sex: Biological (Chromosomes, testosterone, primary and secondary sex organs)
Gender: Identifies, gender role, gender stereotypes
Kohl pre-conventional
Stage 1: Moral judgement for avoiding punishment
Stage 2: Moral judgement in expectation of later reward
Kohl conventional
Stage 3: Morality based on other approval (right and wrong is based on others reactions)
Stage 4: Morality based on law and rules
Kohl Post conventional
Stage 5: Morality is a social contract
Stage 6: Morality based on abstract principles of justice and equality
