Psy 220 After Midterm content Flashcards
Interpersonal Relationships
Extended attachments between tow or more peoples due to bonds or friendship, family, love respect or hierarchy.
Why are interpersonal relationships difficult to study
Due to self selection, people choose their relationships and we can’t experimentally assign people to form extended lasting social bonds
Harold’s monkey experiments (what is it)
A baby was offered 2 fake mothers, one made of hard wire a with a bottle of formula attached, and one made of cloth and they hypothesized that the monkey would only want the wired mother as they only wanted a parent for food. However, the baby monkey stuck to the cloth mother for comfort.
Importance of relationship
Stress reduction: Stressful situations in particular motivate us to affiliate with others who face a similar through
Cognitive Clarity: Perhaps to receive information as other are a good source of what they’re about to face. It helps us clarify what we are thinking and feeling
So people need other people but
Need to belong: Our social belonging is similar to our biological hunger
What are the five criteria of need
Evolutionary basis: Social belonging is linked to survival and reproduction
Universal: All cultures have similar types of social relationships and dynamics
Guides social cognition: Social relationships guide how we see ourselves, others and our surroundings
Satiable: Relationships are something we want like hunger and they need to be satisfied by finding new relationships
Profound consequences without relationships: Being cut off from others is bad for mental and physical health
Costs of Social Rejections
- Feeling socially rejected causes feelings of shame and distress
- Social rejection may reduce ability to regulate behaviors like impulses, concentration and may be more aggressive towards others.
- People who feel more socially isolated report higher levels of chronic pain, aliments and pain during childbirth
Social exchange Theory
Comparison level: Comparing what we think we desire vs. what we have
Equity Theory
The difference between long term and short term relationships
Short term: Exchange relationship, where people are concerned about a fair distribution of rewards and costs
Long term: Communal relationship in which people are less concerned with accounting of who is contribution what and more about helping their partner when they need it
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby: Early attachment with parents/caregivers shape future relationships due to evolution so we develop strong parents-offspring bond
4 types of attachment styles
Secure: feel secure in relationships, Comfortable with intimacy, desire to be close to others during times of stress
Anxious-insecure: Feel insecure in
relationships, will compulsively seek
closeness but constantly
worry about the relationship, and during stress, excessively
try to get closer to
others
Avoidant-insecure: Feel insecure in relationships, feel the need to be completely self reliant and during stress they detached and dismissive others
Disorganized: Inconsistent, unpredictable behavior in relationships ( fearful and confused responses to closeness) , is often linked to early life trauma and they have difficult time trusting others.
What is the experiment that tests infant attachment?
The strange situation: An experimental procedure where an infant’s reaction is observed after the mother leaves the room and the child is left with a stranger and then the mother returns
Rules of Attraction
Both geographical nearness and functional distance predicts liking
Why does proximity effect attraction
Availability and proximity:
Anticipation of interaction:
Mere Exposure
Why mere exposure causes liking?
Classical conditioning: Repeated exposure to a stimulus without any negative consequences makes the stimulus more pleasant
Fluency: Easier to process information about familiar stimuli, pleasant feelings associated with more fluent processing
Similarity
Friends and romantic partners tend to be similar in beliefs and other characteristics
How similarity promotes attraction
Social Validation: We like being around people who agree with us
More fluent interaction: Interacting with people similar to ourselves is often easier leading to less conflict over activities and easier to understand peoples choices
How does dissimilarity effect relationships
Dissimilarity can increase disliking: due to
-false consensus bias: we believe that everyone views the world the same way we do)
-attitude alignment: Where we adjust out attitudes with others overtime to make our close contact relationships easier
Competence
Being to competent people is rewarding BUT if they are more competent than we are in areas that matter to us, we can feel inadequate and their attractiveness will dimmish
Reciprocal liking
The thing that we like those who like us back, when we sense someone likes us, we like them ore creating a positive feedback loop.
Pratfall effect
The idea that while competence, is more attractive, it’s more attractive where “perfect” people make mistakes as we then see them as more human.
What is the Pratfall experiment
Can opposites ever attract?
Yes, with complementarily relationships as they seek each other out to compliment their own charactisics. (Example Dom and Sub relationship.)
What are some of the benefits of being physically attractive?
More popular as friends, better liked as potential romantic partners
What are some of the physical traits that make women physically attractive?
Large eyes, small nose, small chin, full lips, narrow cheeks and prominent cheekbones
What are some of the physical traits that make men physically attractive?
For Masculine med: Strong jaw, Broad forehead, broad shoulders
For Feminine: Prominent cheek bones, Moderately broad features
Why does being attractiveness matter?
Immediacy: Physical appearances are the first thing we notice when meeting other people
Prestige: Physical attractiveness is socially valued and attractive people and people with attractive partners may be seen as higher in social status
Halo effect: people who are more physically attractive are more often assumed to have other positive traits
Matching phenonmenon
The tendency for men and women to choose partners who are a good match in attractiveness and other traits
Evolutionary functions of beauty
Faces that are MORE average and less abnormal are seen as more attractive
Paradox of Choice
An abundance of choice leads people to be less happy with the choice they do me
What makes the paradox of choice worse?
The human process of social comparison, seeing what others have and comparing what we have
The gain-loss theory of Attraction
Increases in positive behavior has more of an impact on us than constantly rewarding behavior from that person. AKA people start treating us better overtime when we feel like we URN that affection
Reward Theory of Attraction
The idea that we are attracted to others who reward us who we find reward
Misattribution of Arousal
The process whereby people mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
What is love?
A combo of emotion, cognitions and behaviors that often play a critical role in intimate relationships
What are the three types of love?
Companionate love: Friends/family/people who have similar interest as us`
Compassionate love: Parents/spouses that monitor and respond to one’s needs
Romantic love: Partners that we feel intense emotional and sexual desire towards
What is the difference for Liking vs Loving
Platonic friend feelings: Shared interest, Mutual respect and companionship
Romantic Partner feelings: Passion, attachment and physical attraction
The distinction changes as the relationship grows
What are Sternberg’s Three main components in his Triangular model of love
Intimacy: Emotional Component: liking and feelings of closeness
Passion: Motivational Component: Drives for attraction romance and sexual desire
Commitment: Cognitive component: Decisions to long term commitment and keeps us together long term
Name ALL of Sternberg’s types of love
Liking: Intimacy without passion or commitment
Infatuation: Passion as the only element
Empty Love: Commitment without intimacy or passion
Romantic Love: Intimacy and passion
Companionate Love: Intimacy and commitment
Fatuous Love: Passion and commitment without intimacy
Consummate Love: Intimacy, passion, and commitment
Theory of Social Penetraction
The idea there are 3 levels of relationships and that they happen in stages as we meet each other. The process is like an onion and we peel back the layer of the opinon.
The porcupine dilemma
The desire to achieve deep intimacy while remaining invulnerable to hurt
Authenticity
The freedom to share your true feelings and beliefs (even negative ones) with your partner. People who support each other in times of need and stress are morel likely to have a healthy relationship that people who don’t.
How do men and women love compare.
Men: Fall in love more quickly and more likely to endorse romantic beliefs
Do men and women share the same responsible in making and caring for the children.
Large asymmetry in the minimal parental investment of males and females
Investment in offspring, evolutionary preceptive
Female: The idea that females invest more into offspring and thus should be more selective than males, looking their partners ability to provide resources to protentional offspring
Male: Men should only focus on fertility
Issues with Investment in offspring, evolutionary preceptive
Evidence that men and women have different preferences for protentional mates may reflect human evolutionary history but may also be due to social factors
Why do we love, evolutionary explanation
Need to belong, passionate and romantic love increase reproductive fitness
Why do we love cultural explanation
First learn about love
Culturally appropriate love object is present
Misattribution of physiological arousal as love
Attachment Theory
Suggest that our behaviors in adult relationship is based on our experiences as infants with our parents.
How do we maintain relationships
Knowledge: Having extensive personal knowledge of each other by sharing info about desire, dreams and prefences
Caring: Caring about each other by sharing affecting and support (emotional social instrumental) with each other instrumental) with each other)
Mutuality: Think of themselves as “us” instead of me and you or mine and yours and recognize the overlap between their lives
Trust: Expect that their partner will treat them fairly and honorably and expect that their partner will be responsive to their needs and be concerned for their welfare
Interdependency: The extent to which intimate parameter need and influence each other
Commitment
Relationship Dissatisfaction
Partners in unsatifactory relationships are more likely to make attrubtions that cast partner in a negative light
What are the four horsemen of divorce couples
Criticism: Being overly critical
Defensiveness: Refusing to accept responsible for conflicts
Stonewalling: Withdrawal from partners refusals to emotionally interact
Contempt: Looking down on one’s partners; especially predictive of the relationship ending if the contempt from women directed at men
Top predictors for divorce
Partnering with a neurotic personality
Partnering with someone highly sensitive to rejection
w Marrying at a young age
Undergoing financial stress
Baxter idea on how relationships end (1982)
Four strategies for dissolution of a relationship:
Withdrawal/avoidance
Positive tone
Manipulative strategies
Open confrontation
Rusbult idea on how relationships end (1986)
Four ways of COPING:
Loyalty: Pro-relationship responses such as passively waiting and hoping for improvement, forgiving and forgetting partner offences, and supporting and maintaining faith in the partner in the face of hurtful actions
Neglect: Passive destructive responses such as allowing the relationship to deteriorate by ignoring or spending less time with the partner, avoiding discussing any problems, and criticizing the partner regarding unrelated issues
Voice: Constructive and active responses such as attempting to improve conditions, discussing problems and suggesting solutions, and engaging in efforts to change problematic self or partner behavior
Exit: Active responses that are destructive for the relationship, such as ending or threatening to terminate the relationship, and abusing, criticizing or derogating the partnert
Adaptive Communication that enhance relationships
Straight talk: A persons clear statement of his or her feelings and concern without accusing blaming, judging or ridiculing the other person
Immediate Feedback: For communication to be effective, we need to give feedback on how our words and behaviors are seen
Feelings vs Judgements: The key to effective communication rests on
our willingness to express feelings rather than judgments.
Psychological components of intergroup bias
Affective component: The general attitude structure but more specifically the emotional component
Behavior: Discrimination is differential treatment due to group membership
Cognitive: Stereotype is a generalization about a group that is seen as descriptive of all member that group
Contemporary Prejudice
Involves beliefs about minorities that are clearly bigoted and readily admitted, has become less socially acceptable
Benevolent stereotypes
Race and gender stereotypes often contain a mix of both positive and negative sentiments
Implicit attitudes
A measure of someone’s AUTOMATIC negative of positive evaluation of a social group or category
Implicit Association Test IAT
A test of implicit bias that Categorizes group A with good/group B
with bad, then reverse: categorize group A with bad/group B with bad, Difference between reaction times in the two blocks = implicit preference for A over
Priming and Implicit Prejudice
Priming procedures to measure implicit prejudice
Economic perspective on discrimination
Prejudice results from different social groups competing over scarce resources
Realistic group conflict theory
Competition for scare resources will increase conflict among groups, creating prejudice and discrimination and hostile conflict increases ethnocentrism
Robber’s Cave Experiment
11 year old boys at camp were spilt into ratters and eagles
Stage 1: Only do actives with own group
Stage 2: Engage in completive sports with prizes for winning team (competing for scare resources)
Stage 3: Introduced super ordinated goals so both groups and to work together to solve the problem (bus got stuck in the mud) (reduce intergroup conflict)
What does the Robbers Cave Experiment about Economic Perspective?
Suggest that prejudice can be reduced when groups see themselves as needing to work together to achieve a collective goal
Motivational Perspective
Prejudice results from motivations to view one’s ingroup more favorably than outgroups
Highlight that prejudice may result from motivations to feel good about oneself
How is self esteem effected by ingroup bias
Being move motivated to boost our group because it is connected to our self esteem and derogating outgroups to boost self-esteem
What are stereotypes
Schemas that influence attention, perception and memory. Help us process social information efficiently
When are most likely to use stereotypes?
When we are mentally drained
Pros and Cons of Stereotypes
Pro: Can be efficient, conserve mental energy
Cons: Can be inaccurate, can lead to unintentionally biased judgments
Outgroup homogeneity effect
Members of outgroup viewed as more similar to each other but those within the ingroup are viewed as distinct individuals
How bias effects construals
Stereotypes guide attention, perception and memory and we can pay attention to remember things that are consistent with our stereotypes
Illusory correlations
False beliefs about groups may be
maintained because we more easily
remember the pairing of two distinct events
What is Corrells shooter bias experiment?
An experiment were you see images of black and white people who are armed are not and have to choose to shoot or not shoot. Seeing the faces primed stereotypes about
black males and made it easier to recognize items linked to the stereotype
Is stereotyping controlled?
No it is automatic and involuntary and are outside the conscious awareness.
Social Dominance Theory
Hierachies that systematically adv/disadv certain groups
How do you maintain the hierarches?
Meritocracy: Fails to acknowledge the role of luck
Just world hypothesis: The idea that people get what they deserve and thus nothing bad will happen to you
Dehumanization: Can be subtle or explicit, justifies inequalities and allows for moral disengagement
What is the stereotype content model
Idea of how we form opinions and make judgments about people based on perceived warmth(friend or foe) and competence( are they skilled and capable)
What are the groups we organize them
Admiration: High competence and high warmth, when we see a group as high status
Pity (paternalistic prejudice): High warm, low competence, people we
Contempt: Low warmth and competence
Envy: High competence and low warmth
Legal system inequalities
Some racial groups may be targets compared to others
Stereotype threat
Anxiety that individuals will confirm that negative stereotypes about their social group
What are Allport 4 conditions for an Optimal conditional for contact
Equal status: No power imbalance
Common goals: Show work together with people people
No competition or intergroup cooperation: Cooperation, not competition
Sanctioned by authority/social norms: validate and encourage interactions
Do we need Allport’s 4 conditions to have prejudice decrease
If you want a large effect yes but you will still have some kind of effect if you use only one
What are groups
A collection of two or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent in the sense that they need and goals cause them to rely on each other. (Typically 2-6 people)
Why are groups benefical
Provide offspring care, Protection from predators, increased efficiency
Social facilitation
Performance improves due to being within a group.
Theory of Mere Presence
Presence of others increases arousal, the arousal strengthens dominant response. For simple tasks, it increases performance but for complex tasks, it decreases performance.
Why does the presence of others increase arousal?
- We become more alert, evaluation apprehension (a human tendency to try to look better or fear of being evaluated,) Distraction conflict theory (disracted by thoughts of how co-actors are doing or how the audience is reacting overloads the cognitive system
Social loafing
The tendency to exert less effort in a group setting than when working alone
Groupthink
A kind of thinking which maintains group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in
How do you reduce social loafing?
Making the tasks challenging, appealing or involving, making people believe that high effort will bring high reward, and forming bonds between group member( group cohesion)
What are the key factors in social loafing?
Group size: The bigger the group, the more loafing
Task importance; a task percieved as less imporatnce can decrease effor
Expectations: Reduced effort if others are perceived to be disengaged
What are the best conditions where groupthink can happen?
Isolation, directive leadership, homogeneity and stress
How do you prevent groupthink?
Group leader should refrain from making their opinon known, making sure the group isn’t cut off from outside input and have someone play the devils advocate
Bystander Effect
The more like people present, the less likely any one perosn will attempt to help
Group polarization
Group decisions as more extreme than those made by individuals
Why does the bystander effect happen?
Diffusion of responsibility: the more people around, we are likely to help because the responsibility is shared
What is power?
The ability to contorl your own outcomes and the outcomes of others
When do we help
How does power relate to nature?
The relative influence you
What are the two things you do to balance power?
Virtues (the postive ways to gain it): Courage, humanity justice and temperance
Vice( the negative ways to gain it) : Machiavellianism, Narcissism and Psychopathy
To gain power you need a balance
How does Self-Awareness effect deindividuation
Self-awareness equals accountability, More likely to act
in line with their personal standards and societal norms
Zimbardo Deindividuation Model
Antecedent Conditions: Anonymity, Diffusion of responsibility, Energizing effect of others, Stimulus overload
Behavioral effects: Impulsivity, Irrationality, Emotionality, Antisocial activity
Internal State, Lessened self-
observation and, self-evaluation, Lessened concern with the evaluation of others, Weakening of
internal controls
Deindividualization
Emergent group
properties, more than the sum of it’s parts diminished
sense of responsibility for
our actions
How does Cult Indoctrination Occur
Behavioral rituals, public recruitment, fund-raising: Strengthen new initiates’ identities as members
Increases personal commitment: Increases the need to justify personal beliefs
and attitudes
What other factors influence aggression?
Situational ( factors that are fluctuating): heat, media
Dispositional (Factors that are stable): Culture, Gender
What is heats correlation with aggresion
More violent crimes occur in summer months, more acts of violence occur in cities with higher average temperatures
Agression
Any behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological pain
Instrumental aggerssion
Aggression where the pain or harm caused is a means to some OTHER goal (Ex: robbing a bank)
Hostile aggresion
Aggression in which causing pain or harm is the only goal
Copycat violence
Acts of violence imitated from media portrayals (fictional or real)
What is the connection between culture and aggression
Income: Those from lower income areas tend to be more aggressive
Culture of Honor: People from cultures of honor are MORE likely to be aggressive after being insulted (ex: The USA south has a culture of honor)
What is media violence connection to agression
Childhood media consumption is related to higher aggression
Do video games make you more aggressive?
Yes but only temporairly
Gender and violent crimes
Large gender differences in violent crime rates with males more likely to be involved in violent criminal behavior
Prosocial behavior
Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person. Can be motivated by selfish OR selfish reasons
Gender and Aggression
Males are more PHYSICALLY aggressive ( fighting, direct verbal comments)
Females are more RELATIONALLY aggressive ( spreading rumors, insults and talking behind others back)
Culture of Honor
A culture that is defined by its members’ strong concerns about their own and others’ reputations, leading to sensitivity
to slights and insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong or insult
Altruism
A motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s own self interest
What are the causes of Altruism
Empathy: Ability to put oneself in another persons’ shoes
What are the two types of Empathy
Empathic concern(Batson): Identifying with another person feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing accompanied by the intention to help the person in need
Empathic distress (Hoffman): Identifying with another person feeling who is specially suffering of another wherein the individual experiences the other’s painful emotional state.
Paradigm and Predictions about when altruism happens
When participants were in situations that were there was levels of escape and empathic concern, the only time the majoirty of people choose to escape was when the sisutation was easy to escape AND when the empathic concern was low
Social rewards
Benefits like praise, positive attention, tangible rewards, honors and gratitude that may be gained from helping others
Personal distress
A motive for helping those in distress that may arise from a need to reduce out OWN distress
Negative state relief (CIALIDINI)
The reason people help is because being exposed to suffering is unpleasant
Steps in an emergency
- Individual must interpret the event as an emergency: the more people around the less likely people are to see it that way due to pluralistic ignorantly bystander assume that nothing is wrong because no one else looks concerned
- Assume responsibility: Diffusion of responsibility suggest that each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of people around the emergency increases
- Know appropriate form of assistance: Individuals must decide to help because there is sometimes a cost to helping (ex: embarrassment, person bleeding or screaming,
How does evolution effect our want to help people?
Kin selection: the tendency for natural selection to favor behavior that benefit the survival of genetic relatives
Reciprocity-based helping:One organism helps another because it
expects help in return, Works best in small isolated groups, Know others’ helping history
and increased chance will encounter who one helped again
Group selection: Helping members of my group to increase my groups chance at survival
The norm of reciprocity
To those who help us, we should return help, not harm
What is the harm of helping unprovoked?
Unsolicited help can
threaten (self-esteem)
and demean when
cannot reciprocate
Norm of Social Responsibility
An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them
However it’s Applied selectively
ad Depends on the attributions that we make for people’s circumstances
What is the Altrusim Social Exchange theory
Altruistic behavior Is based on self-interest and Stems from the desire to maximize our outcomes and minimize our costs. People will help when the rewards are high
and the costs are low
What are the rewards for helping other according to the Altrusim Social Exchange theory
External: Investment in the future, Gain social approval
Internal: Relives distress, Increase feelings of self-worth, self-esteem,
happiness and Feel good after helping
What is the “feel bad, do good” effect?
People tend to help more when they are in a bad mood because it helps reduce feelings of guilt, restore shaken self image and public image and negative state relief hypothesis( the idea that people help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress)
Are ther expection to the “feel bad do good effect”?
Yes, anger, depression and grief because the focus is on self, not others
The empathy-altruism hypothesis
Suggests that, if a person feels empathy towards another person, the person will help when help is needed, regardless of what the person has to gain
If we do not feel empathy, then whether we help will be determined by social exchange
How can we increase helping?
Reduce ambiguity, Increase
responsibility: Personal appeals (verbal or nonverbal)
Increases self-awareness (reduces
deindivuation)
Induce guilt
Socialize prosocial behavior: Positively reinforce prosocial acts with praise, smiles, and hugs*
Cooperation
Working together with other, however, individuals also
must balance benefits of cooperation with the risks of exploitation
Prisoner’s dilemma
Situation where outcome of two
individuals depends upon each
individuals’ independent choice to
cooperate or not
Story of two prisoners who have to
choose between sticking to their story or betraying their partner, without knowing what their partner will do
Ultimatum Game
Situation where one participant is given a sum of money (or other resource) to allocate between him- or herself and another person.
Can choose to allocate the resource in any way
Can keep it all for him- or herself or divide it evenly
BUT the “receiver” can choose to veto
