PSYC 100A - Midterm Weeks 1- 4 Flashcards
Fields Psychologists may work in
Communications, teaching, advertising, clinical psychology
clinical psychologist
psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior
Business + Human resources individuals
Application of psychological factors to work such as motivation, leadership, productivity, marketing, healthy workplaces, and ergonomics.
HOW questions
Refer to the mechanism causing something to occur
WHY questions
Answered from a functional perspective (why do some animals have better hearing?)
Empiricism
View that we obtain knowledge through observable facts and sensory observations.
Believe behavior is measurable, the mind is not. Therefore reality doesn’t always apply.
Shortcomings of empiricism
Relies on the ability to observe something through human senses. (Example, can’t study brain impulses because you can’t see it)
Rationalism
View we obtain knowledge through reason and logic. Enables the study of thought. Ex. Socrates asked “do perceptions equal reality” and we can logically conclude they do no b/c optical illusions.
Shortcomings of Rationalism
Not every question about human behavior can be answered through logic. Somethings aren’t logical. Ex. grocery bags feel heavier if you hold them for longer
Structuralism
(Wundt) knowledge through reducing things we don’t understand into elements. Putting things into elements can allows us to understand why we use them for things.(Ex. look at an apple, say its red, round, and tasty).
Functionalism
(William James) Knowledge through understanding the use of something or the use of a trait.
Connection between Psychology and Science
Scientists study through systematic observation and experiment. This is Empirical.
The results are used to make theories that predict new phenomena. The theories are biased off logic and reason. This is rationalism.
The Scientific Method
A series of steps followed to seek explanations for things that have been observed; including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions
Psychology
The study of behavior and mental processes (emotions, perceptions, and memory)
Behaviors
Any action that can be observed, recorded and measured.
What did Helmholtz and Fechner do?
Contributed to the beginning of psycho-physics.
Verifiability
Something that can be replicated, and therefore it can be checked to see if the results are consistent.
Reliability
Every time the study is done the same result is yielded, therefore it is reliable.
Objectivity
The ability to view something without bias or being influenced by personal feelings.
operational definition
Definition made at the beginning of a study to define the variables within so that everyone doing the study will have the same understanding. (ex. Define aggression in the context of a study.)
independant vs dependant variables
Independent Variable: Used to explain the dependent variable. The variable being manipulated.
Dependent Variable: The variable being tested and measure in the experiment, Changes as the Independent variable changes.
Correlation Study
Takes observations and finds correlations between two variables (NOT CAUSATION)
Experiment
Allows researchers to infer a relationship between variables. Shows causation.
Validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (ex. affected by over expectancy effect)
Reliability
A test is not influenced by emotions or personal views. Results should be stable across time and emotions.
Demand Artifact
When participants in a study notice a change (its too obvious) and change their behavior. No natural behavior is observed. (CONFOUND)
Over expectancy effect
Research knows which group each participant is in. Acts different around different participants, letting it slip which groups they’re actually in and influencing their behavior.
Subject expectancy effect
The subject knows what is being studied and expects a certain outcome, so they change their behaviors
Random Assignment
Each individual is equally likely to be put in any group. Totally random treatment assignment
Double Blind Study
Neither experimenter nor participant knows which group they’ve been assigned to.
Confounds
A factor in an experiment that is not controlled and could influence the dependent variable in a way that affects the study
Descriptive Statistics
statistics that summarize the data collected in a study quantitatively. (Mean, median, graphs, etc.) Based on the sample.
Inferential Statistics
Used to say something about the data, to draw conclusions. (based on statistical population)
DNA
Holder of genetic information nucleus. Make up a chromosome.
Chromosomes
Come in pairs (one from each parent), made up of DNA in a thread like structure. Humans have 23, 22 autosomes and 1 set of X Y chromosome pairs (XX=Female, XY= Male)
Genes
Regions of a chromosomes that encode for a particular protein. These proteins preform functions (can be physical appearance, mental ability, etc.).
Locus
The point where the gene is located. The locus in each chromosome of a pair may not be the same
Allele
Two genes at a given locus. One from mom and one from dad.
Homozygous Allele
having inherited the same versions (alleles) of a genomic marker from each biological parent.
Heterozygous
The two genes are different
Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles
-A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present
-A recessive allele is only expresses if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present)
Monozygotic twins
Identical twins. Made up of the same genetic material BUT may express different genes
Dizygotic Twins
Fraternal twins. No more genetically similar then other types of siblings.
Genotype VS phenotype
Genotype: An organisms genetic make-up (the two alleles)
Phenotype: How the trait is expressed (ie. blue eyes)
Importance of twin studies
Twins are very important to study. Find which things rely more on environment or genetics by comparing similarities in GZ and MZ twins. (more similar in MZ=genetics, More similar in GZ=environment)
polygenic inheritance
Inheritance of a trait through multiple pairs of genes
Epigenetics
The study of heritable changes that occur without a change in the DNA sequence (AKA a mutation).
-Stress, diet, behavior etc can cause chemical switches and change a group of cells.
Behavior Genetics
Specialize in the relationship between genetics and behavior. Mostly studied in families.
Heritability
The degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors. Has many misconceptions.
-Measure pop. NOT individuals
-Results depend on the pop. studied
Shared Environment
Aspects of the environment shared by all family members. EX household socioeconomic status
Nonshared Environment
aspects of an environment that individuals living together (e.g., in a family household) do not share and that therefore cause them to become dissimilar to each other.
Adaptations
Occur through “survival of the fittest”. Genes that code for characteristics related to survival and reproductive success are passed on. Has a lot of misconceptions
Naturalistic Fallacy (MISCONCEPTION)
People believe that what is produced by evolution is either natural and good or unnatural and bad. ITS NEITHER
Genetic Deterministic Fallacy (MISCONCEPTION)
Belief that genes determine behavior independently of environmental influences. WRONG. Environment affects things.
intrasexual selection
selection within the same sex, individuals of one sex compete directly for mates of the opposite sex
intersexual selection
Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex. (look for desirable traits)
Explain the adaptive functions of:
Romantic relationships
allow mating to occur which allows traits to be passed on. also provide resources for each other
Explain the adaptive functions of:
Friendships
can provide support and protection. reciprocal alturism
Explain the adaptive functions of:
Kin relationships
older family members provide for younger ones, so that their bloodline can survive and be passed on.
Explain the adaptive functions of:
Dominance Hierarchies
Have to fight to be at the top. those at the top get first pick of food, resources and mates. Their bloodline is more likely to be passed on. This means the species will get stronger
parental investment theory
a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior, including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring.
-women have to put a lot of effort into offspring
-men can have as many as they wan
inclusive fitness
the reproductive success of those who share common genes and their influence upon the reproductive rate of relatives.
ex. A mom cat who eats her babies has a lower inclusive fitness
A mom cat who sacrifices herself for her babies increases her inclusive fitness
altruism
unselfish concern for the welfare of others.
(1 self is worth a large amount of relative b/c then your genes live on.)
Can increase inclusive fitness
Reciprocal Altruism
When people behave altruistically towards one another because they believe the act will be reciprocated towards either them or their kin. (FRIENDSHIP)
Operational definition of Learning
More or less permenant change in behaviour or behavioural potential that results from experience
Classical Conditioning
form of Learning in which the individual learns an association between 2 stimuli
UCS
Stimulus that evokes a response prior to any conditioning/learning
UCR
Reflexive response to the presentation of the UCS (ex dogs salivating)
CS
A neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to now evoke a response (ex. the bell)
CR
A response that’s similar (not always the same) to the UCR that is now evoked by the CS. (ex. dog salivate when bell is rung)
Generalization
The CS used doesn’t have to be the same as long as it’s similar, it’ll still evoke the CR. However the closer to the CS the better. (ex. different whistle tones)
Discrimination
Discrimination
Training a subject to respond selectively to only certain stimuli, not the ones that are similar.
Ex. give dog food after one whistle tone, but not after the lower or higher whistle tone.
Habitation
Diminished response to a stimulus after repeated exposure (slow process).
ex. You live by a train. at first it wakes u up, then it after time it doesn’t
Contiguity
A continuous series of frequent pairings of stimulus, without the addition of an award.
Contingency
The degree of which a CS can predict the occurrence of the UCS
ex High contingency would mean the CS and UCS are done together every time.
Low contingency would mean the CS and UCS aren’t always paired
Operant Conditioning
Learning from experience. If an action produces a good result you repeat it, if it produces a bad one you do not.
Operant Response
a behavior that is modifiable by its consequences
+ reinforcement
Something presented after a behaviour that Increases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring
- reinforcement
Something that when removed increases the likelihood of behaviour reoccurring.
(ex remove a shock)
+ punishment
Something that when presented following a behaviour, decreases the likelihood of it being repeated
- punishment
Something that when removed following a behaviour decreases the likelihood of it being repeated
ex. taking away child’s toys
P-value
The probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample, or more extreme, under a conjecture about the larger population or process.
Margin of error
The expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for 95% confidence level.
Random sample
Using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population.
Generalized
Related to whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger population.
Population
A larger collection of individuals that we would like to generalize our results to.
Neural impulse
An electro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate
Psychophysics
study of the relationship between stimuli and the perception of those stimuli
Introspection
a method of focusing on internal processes
Consciousness
Awareness of ourselves and our environment
Gestalt Psychology
an attempt to study the unity of experiences
Flashblub memory
a highly detail and vivid meory of an emotionally significant event
Behavioral Genetics
The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.
Quantitative Genetics
Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.
Heritability Coefficient
An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure
the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals
Adoption study
A behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents.
Twin studies
A behavior genetic research method that involves
comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins.
DNA methylation
Covalent modifications of mammalian DNA occurring via the methylation of cytosine, typically in the context of the CpG dinucleotide.
Phenotype
The pattern of expression of the genotype or the magnitude or extent to which it is observably expressed—an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behavior.
Histone modifications
Posttranslational modifications of the N- terminal “tails” of histone proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation
Epigenome
The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks, which can vary widely depending on cell type, tissues and brain regions.
Natural Selection
Differential reproductive success as a consequence of differences in heritable attributes.
Sexual Selection
The evolution of characteristics because of the mating advantage they give organisms.
Adaptations
Evolved solutions to problems that historically contributed to reproductive success.
Inter-sexual competition
A process of sexual selection by which evolution (change) occurs as a consequences of the mate preferences of one sex exerting selection pressure on members of the opposite sex.
Intra-sexual competition
A process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete with each other, and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex.
Implicit Learning
Changes in behavior without having intended to learn something
Implicit Memory
Changes in behavior that reveal the influence of past experience, without intending to use that experience
Incidental Learning
Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
- When you trying to learning
i.e studying for a test
Intentional Learning
Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.
- Leaning on accident
i.e learning someone from a book
Encoding activities
- Imagination
- Generation effect– fill in the blanks
- performing a movement
- saying the words out loud
- creating a drawing
Transfer-appropriate Processing
A principle that states that memory performance is superior
encoding activity.
- you learn better when you test yourself the sam way you learn
Thorndike’s law of effect
The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects. Responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviors are lawfully controlled by their consequences.
Fear conditioning
A classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock.
- i.e scaring a baby from a rat by using loud bell noises
Blocking
the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.
Extinction
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning).
Spontaneous Recovery
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
Context
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs
Renewal Effect
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction.
Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred.
Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
Experience sampling
A methodology where participants report on their momentary thoughts, feelings, and behaviors at different points in time over the course of a day.
External validity
The degree to which a finding generalizes from the specific
Normal distribution
sample and context of a study to some larger population and broader settings.
BAD
Ecological validity
The degree to which a study finding has been obtained under
Normal distribution
conditions that are typical of what happens in everyday life.
Internal validity
The degree to which a cause-effect relationship has been unambiguously established.
Face validity
the degree to which a procedure or method measures what it intends to measure
What is a type I error?
finding a relationship when none really exists.
Type II error
In statistics, the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
